Footnote

a The book Outgrowing the Pain: A Book for and About Adults Abused as Children cautions: “Spanking can become child abuse when it is done in an out-​of-​control way, with enough force to leave injuries. Using instruments to hit, spanking with a closed fist, hitting very young children, and hitting in vulnerable areas (face, head, stomach, back, genitals) can increase the likelihood of corporal punishment becoming child abuse.”