Within three months after Israel left Egypt it became an independent nation under the Law covenant inaugurated at Mount Sinai. (Heb 9:19, 20) The Ten Words, or Ten Commandments, written “by God’s finger” formed the framework of that national code, to which some 600 other laws, statutes, regulations, and judicial decisions were added. This made it the most comprehensive set of laws possessed by any ancient nation, spelling out as it did in great detail the relationship between man and God, as well as between man and his fellowmen.​—Ex 31:18; 34:27, 28.

As a pure theocracy, all judicial, legislative, and executive authority rested with Jehovah. (Isa 33:22; Jas 4:12) In turn, this Great Theocrat delegated certain administrative power to his appointed representatives. The law code itself even provided for an eventual dynasty of kings that would represent Jehovah in civil matters. These kings, however, were not absolute monarchs, since the priesthood was separate from the kingship and independent of it, and in reality the kings sat on “Jehovah’s throne” as his representatives, subject to his directives and discipline.​—De 17:14-20; 1Ch 29:23; 2Ch 26:16-21.

Under the constitutional code, worship of Jehovah was placed above everything else and dominated every part of the nation’s life and activity. Idolatry was rank treason punishable by death. (De 4:15-19; 6:13-15; 13:1-5) The sacred tabernacle, and later the temple, with its prescribed sacrifices was the physical center of worship. The God-appointed priesthood had the Urim and Thummim, by means of which answers were received from Jehovah on important and difficult questions of life or death. (Ex 28:30) Regular assemblies of the men, women, and children were provided (compulsory for the men), and they helped to maintain the nation’s spiritual health and unity.​—Le 23:2; De 31:10-13.

Provisions were made for a system of judges over “tens,” “fifties,” “hundreds,” and “thousands.” In this way the cases of the people could be handled quickly, and appeals could be made on up to Moses, who could, when necessary, present the matter before Jehovah for final decision. (Ex 18:19-26; De 16:18) The military organization with its conscription of manpower and distribution of command also conformed to a similar numerical system.​—Nu 1:3, 4, 16; 31:3-6, 14, 48.

The various civil, judicial, and military offices were filled by the hereditary heads of the tribes​—the older men who were experienced, wise, and discreet. (De 1:13-15) These older men stood before Jehovah as representatives of the entire congregation of Israel, and through them Jehovah and Moses spoke to the people in general. (Ex 3:15, 16) They were men who patiently heard judicial cases, enforced the various features of the Law covenant (De 21:18-21; 22:15-21; 25:7-10), abided by the divine decisions already rendered (De 19:11, 12; 21:1-9), furnished military leadership (Nu 1:16), confirmed treaties already negotiated (Jos 9:15), and, as a committee under the headship of the high priest, discharged other responsibilities (Jos 22:13-16).

This new theocratic state of Israel with its centralized authority still retained the patriarchal arrangement of 12 tribal divisions. But in order to relieve the tribe of Levi of military service (so it could devote its time exclusively to religious matters) and still retain 12 tribes having 12 portions in the Promised Land, formal genealogical adjustments were made. (Nu 1:49, 50; 18:20-24) There was also the matter concerning the firstborn rights. Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn, was entitled to a double portion in the inheritance (compare De 21:17), but he forfeited this right by committing incestuous immorality with his father’s concubine. (Ge 35:22; 49:3, 4) These vacancies, the vacancy of Levi among the 12 as well as the absence of one with firstborn rights, had to be filled.

In a comparatively simple way Jehovah adjusted both matters by a single act. Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, were advanced to full status as tribal heads. (Ge 48:1-6; 1Ch 5:1, 2) Again 12 tribes exclusive of Levi could be numbered, and also a double portion of the land was representatively given to Joseph the father of Ephraim and Manasseh. In this way the firstborn rights were taken away from Reuben, the firstborn of Leah, and given to Joseph, the firstborn of Rachel. (Ge 29:31, 32; 30:22-24) Now with these adjustments the names of the 12 (non-Levite) tribes of Israel were Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Ephraim, Manasseh, Benjamin, Dan, Asher, Gad, and Naphtali.​—Nu 1:4-15.

Israel Under the Judges. Following Moses’ death, Joshua led the Israelites across the Jordan in 1473 B.C.E. into the land described as “flowing with milk and honey.” (Nu 13:27; De 27:3) Then, in a sweeping six-year campaign, they conquered the territory that had been controlled by 31 kings W of the Jordan, including such fortified cities as Jericho and Ai. (Jos 1 to 12) The coastal plains and certain enclave cities, like the Jebusite stronghold that later became the City of David, were exceptions. (Jos 13:1-6; 2Sa 5:6-9) These God-defying elements that were allowed to remain acted like thorns and thistles in the side of Israel, and intermarriage with them only increased the pain. For a period of more than 380 years, from the death of Joshua to their complete subjugation by David, such worshipers of false gods acted “as agents to test Israel so as to know whether they would obey Jehovah’s commandments.”​—Jg 3:4-6.

The newly conquered territory was divided among the tribes of Israel by lot, as Jehovah had commanded Moses. Six “cities of refuge” were set aside for the safety of unintentional manslayers. These, and 42 other cities and their surrounding agricultural land, were allotted to the tribe of Levi.​—Jos 13 to 21.

Each city appointed judges and officers in its gates for handling judicial affairs as provided under the Law covenant (De 16:18) as well as representative older men to administer the general interests of the city. (Jg 11:5) Although the tribes maintained their identity and inheritances, much of the centralized organizational control that had been exercised during the stay in the wilderness was gone. The song of Deborah and Barak, the events of Gideon’s warfare, and the activities of Jephthah all reveal the problems of lack of unity in action that arose after Moses and his successor Joshua passed off the scene and the people failed to look to their invisible Head, Jehovah God, for guidance.​—Jg 5:1-31; 8:1-3; 11:1–12:7.

With the death of Joshua and of the older men of his generation, the people began to vacillate in their faithfulness and obedience to Jehovah, like a great pendulum swinging to and fro between true and false worship. (Jg 2:7, 11-13, 18, 19) When they abandoned Jehovah and turned to serving the Baals, he removed his protection and allowed the nations around them to move in to pillage the land. Awakened by such oppression to the need for united action, wayward Israel appealed to Jehovah and he, in turn, raised up judges, or saviors, to deliver the people. (Jg 2:10-16; 3:15) There was a whole series of these valiant judges after Joshua, including Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Barak, Gideon, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, and Samson.​—Jg 3 to 16.

Each deliverance had a uniting effect on the nation. There were other uniting incidents too. On one occasion when a Levite’s concubine had been wantonly ravished, 11 tribes acted in outraged unity against the tribe of Benjamin, reflecting a sense of national guilt and responsibility. (Jg chaps 19, 20) All the tribes were unitedly drawn to the ark of the covenant in the tabernacle at Shiloh. (Jos 18:1) They therefore felt the loss nationally when the Ark was captured by the Philistines because of the debauchery and misconduct of the priesthood at that time, especially on the part of High Priest Eli’s sons. (1Sa 2:22-36; 4:1-22) With the death of Eli, and with Samuel becoming a prophet and judge of Israel, there was a unifying effect on Israel, as Samuel traveled in a circuit through Israel to handle the questions and disputes of the people.​—1Sa 7:15, 16.

The United Kingdom. Samuel was extremely displeased when, in 1117 B.C.E., Israel pleaded: “Do appoint for us a king to judge us like all the nations.” However, Jehovah told Samuel, “Listen to the voice of the people . . . for it is not you whom they have rejected, but it is I whom they have rejected from being king over them.” (1Sa 8:4-9; 12:17, 18) Thereupon, Saul the Benjamite was picked as Israel’s first king, and though he began his rule well enough, it was not long before his presumptuousness led to disobedience, disobedience, in turn, to rebellion, and rebellion to his finally consulting a spirit medium​—so that after 40 years he proved a complete failure!​—1Sa 10:1; 11:14, 15; 13:1-14; 15:22-29; 31:4.

David of the tribe of Judah, a ‘man agreeable to Jehovah’s heart’ (1Sa 13:14; Ac 13:22), was anointed king in the place of Saul, and under his able leadership the nation’s boundaries were extended to the limits promised, from “the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates.”​—Ge 15:18; De 11:24; 2Sa 8:1-14; 1Ki 4:21.

During David’s 40-year reign various specialized offices were created in addition to the tribal arrangement. There was an inner circle of counselors surrounding the king himself, besides the older men of influence that served the centralized government. (1Ch 13:1; 27:32-34) Then there was the larger departmental staff of the government made up of tribal princes, chiefs, court officials, and military personnel having administrative responsibilities. (1Ch 28:1) For effective handling of certain matters, David appointed 6,000 Levites as judges and officers. (1Ch 23:3, 4) Other departments with their appointed overseers were established to look after the cultivation of the fields and to manage such things as the vineyards and wineries, the olive groves and oil supplies, and the livestock and the flocks. (1Ch 27:26-31) The king’s financial interests were similarly cared for by a central treasury department separate from that supervising the treasures stored elsewhere, as in outlying cities and villages.​—1Ch 27:25.

Solomon succeeded his father David as king in 1037 B.C.E. He reigned “over all the kingdoms from the River [Euphrates] to the land of the Philistines and to the boundary of Egypt” for 40 years. His reign was especially marked by peace and prosperity, for the nations round about kept “bringing gifts and serving Solomon all the days of his life.” (1Ki 4:21) The wisdom of Solomon was proverbial, he being the wisest king of ancient times, and during his reign Israel reached the zenith of its power and glory. One of Solomon’s grandest accomplishments was the building of the magnificent temple, the plans for which he had received from his inspired father David.​—1Ki chaps 3 to 9; 1Ch 28:11-19.

And yet for all his glory, riches, and wisdom, Solomon ended up a failure, for he allowed his many foreign wives to turn him away from the pure worship of Jehovah to the profane practices of false religions. In the end Solomon died disapproved by Jehovah, and Rehoboam his son succeeded him.​—1Ki 11:1-13, 33, 41-43.

Rehoboam, lacking wisdom and foresight, increased the already heavy government burdens on the people. This, in turn, caused the ten northern tribes to secede under Jeroboam, even as Jehovah’s prophet had foretold. (1Ki 11:29-32; 12:12-20) Thus it was that the kingdom of Israel was divided in 997 B.C.E.

For details on the divided kingdom, see ISRAEL No. 3.

Israel After the Babylonian Exile. During the next 390 years following the death of Solomon and the breaking up of the united kingdom and on down to the destruction of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E., the term “Israel” usually applied only to the ten tribes under the rule of the northern kingdom. (2Ki 17:21-23) But with the return of a remnant of all 12 tribes from exile, and continuing on down to the second destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., the term “Israel” once again embraced the whole of Jacob’s descendants living at that time. Again the people of all 12 tribes were called “all Israel.”​—Ezr 2:70; 6:17; 10:5; Ne 12:47; Ac 2:22, 36.

Those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and High Priest Joshua (Jeshua) in 537 B.C.E. numbered nearly 50,000 (42,360 Israelites and in addition over 7,500 slaves and professional singers), and these began rebuilding Jehovah’s house of worship. (Ezr 3:1, 2; 5:1, 2) Later others returned with Ezra in 468 B.C.E. (Ezr 7:1–8:36), and still later, in 455 B.C.E., no doubt others accompanied Nehemiah when he came to Jerusalem with the special assignment to rebuild the walls and gates of the city. (Ne 2:5-9) Many Israelites, however, remained scattered throughout the empire, as noted in the book of Esther.​—Es 3:8; 8:8-14; 9:30.

While Israel did not return to its former sovereignty as an independent nation, yet it did become a Hebrew commonwealth with considerable freedom under Persian domination. Deputy rulers and governors (like Zerubbabel and Nehemiah) were appointed from among the Israelites themselves. (Ne 2:16-18; 5:14, 15; Hag 1:1) The older men of Israel and the tribal princes continued to act as counselors and representatives of the people. (Ezr 10:8, 14) The priestly organization was reestablished, based on the ancient genealogical records that had been carefully preserved, and with such Levitical arrangement once again in operation, the sacrifices and other requirements of the Law covenant were observed.​—Ezr 2:59-63; 8:1-14; Ne 8:1-18.

With the fall of the Persian Empire and the rise of Grecian domination of the world, Israel found itself torn by the conflict between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria. The latter, during the rule of Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), determined to eradicate Jewish worship and customs. His effort reached a climax in 168 B.C.E. when a pagan altar was erected atop the temple altar in Jerusalem and dedicated to the Greek god Zeus. This outrageous incident, however, had a reverse effect, for it was the spark that touched off the Maccabean uprising. Three years later, to the day, victorious Jewish leader Judas Maccabaeus rededicated the cleansed temple to Jehovah with a festival that has since been commemorated by the Jews as Hanukkah.

The century that followed was one of great internal disorder in which Israel was led farther and farther away from the tribal administrative provisions of the Law covenant. It was during this period when home rule by the Maccabeans or Hasmonaeans met with varying fortunes, and when the parties of the pro-Hasmonaean Sadducees and the anti-Hasmonaean Pharisees developed. Finally Rome, by now the world power, was called upon to interfere. General Gnaeus Pompey intervened, and after a three-month siege he took Jerusalem in 63 B.C.E. and annexed Judea to the empire. Herod the Great was appointed king of the Jews by Rome in about 39 B.C.E., and about three years later he effectively crushed the Hasmonaean rule. Shortly before Herod’s death Jesus was born in 2 B.C.E., as “a glory of your people Israel.”​—Lu 2:32.

Rome’s imperial authority over Israel during the first century C.E. was distributed among district rulers and governors, or procurators. The Bible mentions such district rulers as Philip, Lysanias, and Herod Antipas (Lu 3:1); as well as Governors Pontius Pilate, Felix, and Festus (Ac 23:26; 24:27); and Kings Agrippa I and II (Ac 12:1; 25:13). Internally, there still remained some semblance of the tribal genealogical arrangement, as is seen when Caesar Augustus had Israelites register in the respective cities of their paternal houses. (Lu 2:1-5) Among the people “the older men” and the priestly Levitical functionaries were still very influential (Mt 21:23; 26:47, 57; Ac 4:5, 23), though they had, to a large degree, substituted the traditions of men for the written requirements of the Law covenant.​—Mt 15:1-11.