“princes of the people” among the twenty-five men Ezekiel envisioned “scheming hurtfulness and advising bad counsel” against Jerusalem.—Ezek. 11:1, 2.

3. One of the “heads of the people” whose descendant, if not himself, attested by seal to Nehemiah’s “trustworthy arrangement.”—Neh. 10:1, 17; 9:38.

BAAL

(Baʹal) [master, owner]

1. The fourth-listed son of Jeiel, a Benjamite.—1 Chron. 8:30, 32; 9:35, 36.

2. A Reubenite whose son Beerah was among those taken captive by Assyrian “Tilgath-pilneser” (Tiglath-pileser).—1 Chron. 5:5, 6, 26.

3. A Simeonite enclave city within the territory of Judah, apparently the same as Baalath-beer and Ramah of the Negeb.—Compare 1 Chronicles 4:32, 33 and Joshua 19:7-9.

4. In the Scriptures, the Hebrew word baʹʽal is employed with reference to (1) a husband as owner of his wife (Gen. 20:3), (2) landowners (Josh. 24:11), (3) “owners of the nations” (Isa. 16:8), (4) confederates (literally, “owners of a covenant”) (Gen. 14:13), (5) owners or possessors of tangibles (Ex. 21:28, 34; 22:8; 2 Ki. 1:8), (6) persons or things having something that is characteristic of their nature, manner, occupation and the like; for example, an archer (literally, “owner of arrows”) (Gen. 49:23), a “creditor of [a] debt” (literally, “owner of [a] debt”) (Deut. 15:2), “given to anger” (literally, “owner of anger”) (Prov. 22:24), “my judicial antagonist” (literally, “owner of my judgment”) (Isa. 50:8), “possessing the two horns” (literally, “owner of the two horns”) (Dan. 8:6), (7) Jehovah (Hos. 2:16), (8) false gods.—Judg. 2:11, 13.

Whenever the term baʹ‘‏al applies to the false god Baal, it is generally distinguished from the common noun by the definite article. In the Scriptures, the expression hab-B^eʽa·limʹ (“the Baals”) seems to refer to the local deities thought of as owning or possessing and having influence over a particular place, whereas hab-Baʹʽal (“the Baal”) is the designation applied to a specific Canaanite god. It has been suggested that the designation “Baal” was originally a title and that this title in time came to be used almost exclusively instead of the name of the god.

At times in Israel’s history Jehovah was referred to as “Baal,” in the sense of his being the Lord or Husband of the nation. (Isa. 54:5) Also, the Israelites may have improperly associated Jehovah with Baal in their apostasy. The latter appears to be borne out by Hosea’s prophecy that the time would come when Israel, after going into and being restored from captivity, would repentantly call Jehovah “My husband,” and no more “My owner” (“My Baal,” AT). The context suggests that the designation “Baal” and its associations with the false god would never again pass the lips of the Israelites. (Hos. 2:9-17) The bad connotation that appears to have become attached to the Hebrew word baʹ‘‏al because of its association with the degraded worship of Baal is thought by some to be the reason why the writer of Second Samuel used the names “Ish-bosheth” and “Mephibosheth” (boʹsheth means shame) instead of “Eshbaal” and “Merib-baal.”—2 Sam. 2:8; 9:6; 1 Chron. 8:33, 34.

BAAL ACCORDING TO BIBLICAL AND EXTRABIBLICAL SOURCES

Little was known about Baal worship aside from the many Scriptural references to it until excavations at Ugarit (the modern Ras Shamra on the Syrian coast opposite the northeastern tip of the island of Cyprus) brought to light many religious artifacts and hundreds of clay tablets. Many of these ancient documents, now known as the Ras Shamra texts, are thought to be the liturgies of or words spoken by those participating in the rituals at the religious festivals.

In the Ras Shamra texts Baal (also called Aliyan [the one who prevails] Baal) is referred to as “Zabul [Prince], Lord of the Earth” and “the Rider of the Clouds.” This harmonizes with a representation of Baal, showing him as holding a club or mace in his right hand and a stylized lighting flash with a spearhead in his left. He is also depicted as wearing a helmet with horns, suggesting an intimate connection with the bull, a symbol of fertility.

Normally from late April to September there is hardly any rain in Palestine. In October the rains start and continue throughout winter and into April, resulting in abundant vegetation. The changes of the seasons and the resulting effects were thought to come in cycles because of the never-ending conflicts between the gods. The cessation of the rains and the dying of vegetation were attributed to the triumph of the god Mot (death and aridity) over Baal (rain and fertility), compelling Baal to withdraw into the depths of the earth. The beginning of the rainy season was believed to indicate that Baal had awakened to life. This, it was thought, was made possible by the triumph of Baal’s sister Anath over Mot, allowing her brother Baal to return to his throne. The mating of Baal with his wife, presumably Ashtoreth, was believed to ensure fertility for the coming year.

The farming and cattle-raising Canaanites probably thought that their engaging in a prescribed ritual, a sort of sympathetic magic, helped to stimulate their gods to action according to the pattern enacted at their religious festivals and was necessary to ensure productive crops and herds in the coming year and to avert droughts, locust plagues, and so forth. Hence Baal’s coming to life again to be enthroned and mated with his consort apparently was celebrated with licentious fertility rites, marked by sexual orgies of unrestrained debauchery.

Undoubtedly each Canaanite city built its Baal sanctuary in honor of its local patron Baal. Priests were appointed to conduct the worship at these sanctuaries and the many shrines on neighboring hilltops known as “high places.” (Compare 2 Kings 17:32.) Inside the shrines there may have been images or representations of Baal, whereas near the altars outside were to be found stone pillars (likely phallic symbols of Baal), sacred poles representing the goddess Asherah, and incense stands. (Compare 2 Chronicles 34:4-7.) Male and female prostitutes served at the high places and, besides ceremonial prostitution, even child sacrifice was practiced. (Compare 1 Kings 14:23, 24; Hosea 4:13, 14; Isaiah 57:5; Jeremiah 7:31; 19:5.) Worship of Baal was also carried out right on the housetops of the people,