letters of introduction so the murderous campaign could be extended to Damascus (Acts 7:1, 54-60; 9:1, 2) However, not long thereafter Vitellius, a Roman official, removed Caiaphas from office, whereupon this humiliated man, unable to bear the reproach, reportedly committed suicide.

CAIN

[acquisition, or, something acquired].

The first child born on earth to the original human pair, Adam and Eve. (Gen. 4:1) The name Cain (Heb., Qaʹyin) apparently is derived from the root word qa·nahʹ, “to acquire.” God had not taken away the reproductive powers of sinful Adam and Eve. Also, Eve’s statement, “I have acquired [form of qa·nahʹ] a man with the aid of Jehovah,” could be made by her on the basis of God’s declaration, given in his judgment upon her, that he would greatly increase the pain of her pregnancy and that in birth pangs she would bring forth children.—Gen. 3:16.

Cain became a cultivator of the ground and, “at the expiration of some time,” he, as well as his younger brother Abel, brought offerings to present to Jehovah, feeling the need to gain God’s favor. Cain’s offering of “some fruits of the ground,” however, was not ‘looked upon with any favor’ by God. (Gen. 4:2-5; compare Numbers 16:15; Amos 5:22.) While some point out that Cain’s offering is not said to be of the choicest fruits whereas Abel’s offering is specified to have been of the “firstlings of his flock, even their fatty pieces,” other texts of the Bible do not seem to view Cain’s offering as having been inferior as to the quality of the products. Rather, as Hebrews 11:4 points out, Cain’s offering lacked the motivation of faith that made Abel’s sacrifice acceptable. The inferiority of Cain’s offering may also be because his offering was bloodless, whereas Abel’s represented a life poured out.

The manner in which the distinction between the approved and the disapproved offerings was made is not stated, but it was undoubtedly evident to both Cain and Abel. Jehovah, who reads the heart of man (1 Sam. 16:7; Ps. 139:1-6), knew the wrong attitude of Cain, and His rejection of Cain’s sacrifice resulted in that wrong disposition being made clearly manifest. The “works of the flesh” now began to be openly produced by Cain: “hatreds, strife jealousy, fits of anger.” (Gal. 5:19, 20) Jehovah showed the sullen man that exaltation could be his by simply turning to doing good. He could have humbled himself to imitate his brother’s approved example, but he chose to ignore God’s counsel to get the mastery over the sinful desire that ‘lurked at the door,’ craving to dominate him. (Gen. 4:6, 7; compare James 1:14, 15.) This disrespectful course was the “path of Cain.”—Jude 11.

The statement: “Let us go over into the field” (Gen. 4:8), is not included in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Scriptures, but a number of Hebrew manuscripts have the sign of omission here, while the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint Version, the Syriac Peshitta and Old Latin texts all include these words as spoken by Cain to Abel. In the field Cain attacked Abel, killing him and thereby becoming the first human murderer. As such he could be said to have “originated with the wicked one” who is the “father” of manslayers as well as of the lie. (1 John 3:12; John 8:44) Cain’s callous response to Jehovah’s inquiry as to Abel’s whereabouts was further evidence of his attitude; it was not an expression of repentance or remorse but a lying retort: “I do not know. Am I my brother’s guardian?”—Gen. 4:8, 9.

God’s sentencing of Cain to banishment from the ground evidently meant his eviction from the neighborhood of the garden of Eden, and the curse already upon the earth would be increased in Cain’s case, the earth not responding to his cultivation of it. Cain expressed regret over the severity of his punishment and anxiety as to the possibility of Abel’s murder being avenged upon him, but still no sincere repentance. Jehovah “set up a sign for Cain” to prevent his being killed, but the record does not say that this sign or mark was placed on Cain’s person in any way. The “sign” likely consisted of God’s solemn decree itself, known and observed by others.—Gen. 4:10-15; compare verse 24 where that decree is referred to by Lamech.

Cain went into banishment in “the land of Fugitiveness to the east of Eden,” taking with him his wife, an anonymous daughter of Adam and Eve. Gen. 4:16, 17; compare 5:4, also the much later example of Abraham’s marriage to his half-sister Sarah, 20:12.) Following the birth of his son Enoch, Cain “engaged in building a city,” naming it for his son. Such city may have been but a fortified village by present standards and the record does not state when it was completed. His descendants are listed in part and include men who distinguished themselves in nomadic stock raising, the playing of musical instruments, the forging of metal tools, also practicing polygamy and violence. (4:17-24) Cain’s line ended with the global flood of Noah’s day.

CAINAN

(Ca·iʹnan).

1. Son of Enos (Enosh); an ancestor of Jesus’ earthly mother Mary. (Luke 3:37) Cainan is evidently called Kenan at Genesis 5:9-14 and 1 Chronicles 1:2.—See KENAN.

2. One listed in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus Christ as the son of Arphaxad. (Luke 3:36) The name “Cainan” appears in present copies of the Septuagint, such as the Alexandrine Manuscript of the fifth century C.E. (Gen. 10:24; 11:12, 13; 1 Chron. 1:18 but not 1:24), although it is not found in extant Hebrew manuscripts of the Hebrew Scriptures. Hence, Luke may have inserted the name Cainan between the names of Shelah and Arphaxad on the basis of the Septuagint reading, but there is some question as to whether this name actually appeared in the original text of Luke’s Gospel. The name “Cainan” is, in fact, missing at Luke 3:36 in the Cambridge Manuscript of the sixth century C.E. This omission is in harmony with the Masoretic text at Genesis 10:24; 11:12 and 1 Chronicles 1:18, according to which Shelah, not Cainan, is the son of Arpachshad. On the other hand, the name “Cainan” is possibly a variant of the word “Chaldean,” and therefore the Greek text of Luke 3:36 may once have read: “the son of the Chaldean Arphaxad.”—See ARPACHSHAD.

CAKE

Among the Hebrews and other Oriental peoples of ancient times bread was often baked in the form of flat disks, and it was not uncommon to refer to such bread by the term “cake.” In fact, one of the Hebrew words translated “cake” is from a root that means “to be round.”

However, cakes were of various shapes. For instance, ring-shaped cakes were used at the time of the installing of Israel’s priesthood (Ex. 29:2, 23) and Tamar prepared heart-shaped cakes. (2 Sam. 13:8; see LOAF.) Abraham told Sarah to make “round cakes” to feed the materialized angels that visited him.—Gen. 18:6; see also Numbers 11:8; Judges 7:13; 1 Kings 19:6; Ezekiel 4:12.

Through the prophet Hosea, Jehovah said: “Ephraim himself has become a round cake not turned on the other side.” (Hos. 7:8) Ephraim (Israel) had mingled with pagan peoples, adopting their ways and also seeking alliances with heathen nations and consequently was like a cake not turned. It was not uncommon to bake cakes on hot ashes or hot stones. If such cakes were not turned, they might be baked or even burned on one side and not baked at all on the other side.

During Israel’s Passover celebration unfermented cakes (yeastless or unleavened bread) were to be eaten, and associated with this observance was the “festival of unfermented cakes.” (Ex. 12:8, 15, 17-20; 13:3-7; 23:15; 34:18; Deut. 16:3, 8, 16) Unfermented ringshaped cakes moistened with oil or unfermented wafers that were smeared with oil were among the offerings Israel was to make to Jehovah God. (Lev. 2:4-7, 11, 12) In the law of the communion sacrifice to be presented to Jehovah, provision was also made for offering ring-shaped cakes of leavened bread.—Lev. 7:13.

After the ark of the covenant had been brought to Jerusalem, David “apportioned to all the people, to the whole crowd of Israel, man as well as woman, to each one a ring-shaped cake of bread and a date cake and a raisin cake, after which all the people went each to his own house.” (2 Sam. 6:19) The raisin cake consisted of compressed dried grapes or raisins. However, it is possible that at least some of the raisin cakes prepared in ancient times were made from raisins and flour.

In Jeremiah’s day the people of Judah and Jerusalem engaged in false worship and the women among them were “kneading flour dough in order to make sacrificial cakes to the ‘queen of the heavens.’” (Jer. 7:18) Reference is also made to this false deity and “sacrificial cakes” made for her in Jeremiah 44:19. Just what these sacrificial cakes consisted of is uncertain, but they were evidently put on the altar as an offering. It has been suggested that this “queen of the heavens” was a moon goddess. Jeremiah 44:19 mentions making sacrificial cakes “in order to make an image of her.” It is possible that these cakes had the form of a crescent or that of the full moon, like offerings made in Athens during the full moon to the goddess Artemis.

CALAH

(Caʹlah) [vigor].

A city founded by Nimrod in Assyria and originally part of “the great city” composed of Nineveh, Calah, Resen and Rehoboth-Ir, the latter three places apparently being “suburbs” of Nineveh. (Gen. 10:9-12) Calah appears as Kalhu on Assyrian cuneiform texts, and during the period of the Assyrian Empire it became one of the three principal cities of the realm, along with Nineveh and Asshur. Calah was situated at the NE angle of the junction of the Great Zab River with the Tigris, about twenty miles (32.2 kilometers) S-SE of Nineveh. The present modern town now found on the site is called Nimrud, thereby preserving the name of the ancient founder of the city.

Assyrian texts state that Calah was rebuilt by Emperor Shalmaneser I of the latter half of the second millennium B.C.E. Then, in the ninth century, Ashurnasirpal II claims to have restored the city from a decayed condition and made it his capital, building massive walls fortified with scores of towers, a royal palace and temples, including a ziggurat tower some 126 feet (38.4 meters) high. Research indicates that the city covered an area of 884 acres (358 hectares) and contained, not only palaces, temples and houses, but also gardens and orchards, watered by a canal dug from the Zab River. The banquet provided by Ashurnasirpal at the completion of his new capital is stated to have included all the city’s residents plus visiting dignitaries, to a total of 69,574 persons.

When excavated, the ruins of Calah produced some of the finest examples of Assyrian art, including colossal winged man-headed lions and winged bulls, many huge bas-reliefs that lined the palace walls, and also a rich find of beautifully carved ivory objects. An excellently preserved statue of Ashurnasirpal was uncovered, as well as the so-called “Black Obelisk” of Shalmaneser III, which names King Jehu of Israel as paying tribute to Assyria.—See SHALMANESER No. 1.

Calah enjoyed great prominence for about 150 years during the peak of the Assyrian power but suffered desolation along with the other royal cities of the realm with the downfall of the empire. Xenophon, in the fifth century B.C.E., found the city deserted.—Compare Isaiah 30:30-33; 31:8, 9.

CALAMUS, CANE

[Heb., qa·nehʹ].

The Hebrew qa·neh’ is the original source of the English word “cane” (as well as of the word “canon”) and qa·nehʹ is often translated as “stalk” (Gen. 41:5, 22), ‘branch’ (Ex. 25:31, 32), or “reed” (1 Ki. 14:15). In certain texts, however, either the context or a modifying word indicates that an aromatic plant is referred to and qa·nehʹ is thus translated “calamus,” “cane,” “sweet cane” (Heb., q^eneh voʹsem), or “good cane” (qa·nehʹ hat-tohvʹ).

Among the ingredients used in preparing the holy anointing oil was “sweet calamus,” the sweetness referring to its odor, not its taste. (Ex. 30:22-25) The Song of Solomon (4:14) includes “cane” among other odoriferous spices. Jehovah through his prophet Isaiah (43:24) reproved the spiritually weary Israelites for ‘having bought’ (Heb., qa·niʹtha) for his temple service no “sweet cane” (qa·nehʹ), thereby making a play on words in Hebrew. Jeremiah (6:20) refers to “good cane” received from a “land far away,” while Ezekiel (27:3, 19) includes cane among the products for which wealthy Tyre traded.

The English word “calamus” is derived from the Greek kaʹla·mos, used by the translators of the Septuagint Version to render the Hebrew qa·nehʹ. Like the Hebrew word, kaʹla·mos also has the basic meaning of reed or cane, whereas the English word calamus today is used principally to refer to the sweet flag (Acorus calamus) or its aromatic root. The sweet flag grows in wet places and along streams. Both the plant’s flat, sword-shaped leaves and its root have a sweet scent. Not all scholars or lexicographers, however, are agreed that the sweet flag is the plant referred to in the Bible. It is pointed out that sweet calamus (Acorus calamus) is not found in the Palestinian region nor in Syria at the present time. Nevertheless, the ancient Roman writer Pliny stated that “scented calamus, also, which grows in Arabia, is common both in India and Syria, that which grows in the last country being superior to all the rest.”

Many authorities prefer an identification of the calamus or sweet cane with an aromatic reed grass of India, such as Cymbopogon martini, a perennial grass whose leaves when crushed produce a fragrant oil known as ginger-grass oil. Other varieties of these Indian grasses produce citronella oil and lemon-grass oil. The view that one or more of such sweet-scented grasses is represented by the sweet cane or calamus of the Hebrew Scriptures is based mainly on Jeremiah’s reference to the product as coming from a “land far away,” which in this case would be India. Other areas, however, may have been producers of the aromatic “cane” or “calamus,” as indicated by Ezekiel’s prophecy. (27:19) Thus, while some kind of aromatic reed or cane is meant, the plant’s precise identification remains uncertain.

CALCOL

(Calʹcol) [possibly, short and nimble].

One whose wisdom, though great, was exceeded by King Solomon’s (1 Ki. 4:31); possibly the same as the descendant of Judah through Zerah.—1 Chron. 2:4, 6.

CALEB

(Caʹleb) [dog, or, snappish].

1. Son of Hezron, brother of Jerahmeel and greatgrandson of Judah and Tamar (1 Chron. 2:3-5, 18); also called Chelubai (vs. 9). One of his descendants was Bezalel, the skilled craftsman assigned to oversee building the tabernacle. (1 Chron. 2:19, 20; Ex. 35:30) It appears that No. 2 below was his descendant.

2. Son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite of the tribe of Judah, uncle of Othniel, and likely a descendant of No. 1 above. (Num. 32:12; Josh. 15:17; 1 Chron. 4:13, 15; see OTHNIEL.) When forty years old, Caleb was one of the twelve spies sent out by Moses on a forty-day preview of the land of Canaan, and, upon returning, Caleb together with Joshua stood up against the opposition of all the others to give a favorable report, saying: “Let us go up directly, and we are bound to take possession of it.” (Num. 13:6, 30; 14:6-9) Because he had ‘followed Jehovah his God fully’ he was the only one of that adult generation besides Joshua and some Levites to enter the Promised