prerogative of the medieval and modern West does not hold water.” He goes on to say that even among primitive cultures there are many examples of music running in fifths, fourths, thirds as well as in octaves, and that among these peoples, including certain pygmy tribes, there was a development of overlapping antiphony (alternate singing by two divisions of vocalists) into regular canon singing.

Based on worldwide research Sachs presents the conclusion that “the choruses and orchestras connected with the Temple in Jerusalem suggest a high standard of musical education, skill, and knowledge.” He continues: “It is important to realize that the ancient Western Orient had a music quite different from what historians of the nineteenth century conceded it. . . . Though we do not know how that ancient music sounded, we have sufficient evidence of its power, dignity, and mastership.”

The Scriptures intimate a similar conclusion. For instance, over thirty times the expression “To [For] the director” (NW; AT) appears in the superscriptions to the Psalms. (Psalm 11, and others) Other translations read “choirmaster” (Kx; JB; Mo; RS); “Chief Musician” (AS; AV; Le; Ro) and “Bandmaster” (Fn). The Hebrew term seems to refer to one who in some way gave direction to the execution of the song, either in arranging it, or in rehearsing and training the Levite singers or in its official performance. Perhaps the chief one of each of the twenty-four courses of sanctuary musicians is being addressed, or it may have been another one of the accomplished musicians, since the record says that they were “to act as directors.” (1 Chron. 15:21; 25:1, 7-31) In some twenty other Psalms the superscriptions are even more specific in their reference to the “directors”: “To the director on stringed instruments,” “To the director on the lower octave,” and so on. (Psalms 4, 12, and others) Additionally, there are Scriptural references to the “heads of the singers,” to the “experts” and to the ‘learners.’ All of this testifies to a high standard of music.—Neh. 12:46; 1 Chron. 25:7, 8.

Much of the group singing in Israel appears to have been antiphonal, either two half choruses alternating in singing parallel lines, or a soloist and an answering chorus alternating. In the Scriptures this apparently is referred to as “responding.” (Ex. 15:21; 1 Sam. 18:6, 7) This type of singing is indicated by the very way some of the psalms are written, such as Psalm 136. The description of the two large thanksgiving choirs in Nehemiah’s time and of their part in the inauguration of the wall of Jerusalem implies that they sang in this style.—Neh. 12:31, 38, 40-42; see SONG.

Chanting might be said to be halfway between singing and speaking. In pitch it is rather monotonous and repetitious, with the emphasis being on rhythm. While chanting continues to be quite popular in some of the world’s leading religions, its use in the Bible appears to be limited to dirges, as in the case of David chanting a dirge over the deaths of his friend Jonathan and King Saul. (2 Sam. 1:17; 2 Chron. 35:25; Ezek. 27:32; 32:16) Only in a dirge or lamentation would the chanting style be preferable to either the melody of music or the modulation and oral emphasis of pure speech.—See DIRGE.

MUSTACHE

See BEARD.

MUSTARD

A rapid-growing herb, to the seed or grain of which Jesus referred in illustrating the growth of the kingdom of the heavens from a small beginning (Matt. 13:31, 32; Mark 4:30-32; Luke 13:18, 19; compare Daniel 2:34, 35, 44, 45; 4:20-22), and in pointing out that even a little faith can accomplish much. (Matt. 17:20; Luke 17:6) Several kinds of mustard plants are found growing wild in Palestine, black mustard being the variety commonly cultivated. In rich soil the seed, after a few months, may become treelike, a plant measuring from ten to as much as fifteen feet (3 to 4.6 meters) in height, with a central stalk having the thickness of a man’s arm. The flowers of mustard plants are yellow and the leaves rather irregular-edged and dark green in color. The pods that develop contain a row of seeds, those of the black mustard being dark brown. In the fall the stems and branches of the plants harden and become rigid, strong enough to support birds such as linnets and finches that feed on the seeds.

While some may argue that a mustard grain is not the “tiniest” of all seeds, orchid seeds being smaller, and that it does not actually become a “tree,” it must be borne in mind that Jesus was speaking in terms familiar to his audience. As far as Jesus’ listeners were concerned, the mustard grain was indeed among the tiniest seeds planted, and it is noteworthy that the Arabs designate as “trees” plants smaller than the mustard.—Matt. 13:31, 32.

MUTH-LABBEN

(Muth-labʹben) [Heb., ʽal·muthʹ lab·benʹ, possibly meaning “concerning the death of the son”]. An expression included in the superscription of one of David’s psalms. (Psalm 9) Some commentators suggest that it indicated to the musical director the name or perhaps the opening words of a familiar song that furnished the melody to be used in singing this psalm. One possibility of the word’s meaning is advanced by the Targum, wherein the superscription of Psalm 9 reads: “On the death of the man who came forth from between the camps,” alluding to a champion. The apparent reference here is to Goliath, the Philistine champion whom David defeated in battle between the Israelite and Philistine encampments.—1 Sam. 17:45-51.

MUZZLE

A device designed to cover an animal’s mouth and prevent it from biting or eating.

Cattle were often used in ancient Palestine when a large quantity of grain was to be threshed. In preparation, the sheaves were untied and distributed over the hard-packed surface of the threshing floor until a thick layer was formed. Then one or more animals trod the grain with their hooves or it was threshed by means of a threshing sledge or other implement they drew over it. The Mosaic law commanded: “You must not muzzle a bull while it is threshing.” (Deut. 25:4) Thus it was not tortured with a desire to eat some of the grain that it was expending its strength to thresh.—Compare Proverbs 12:10.

The principle involved at Deuteronomy 25:4 can also be applied to human laborers. Paul told Timothy: “Let the older men who preside in a fine way be reckoned worthy of double honor, especially those who work hard in speaking and teaching.” Then, confirming his counsel, the apostle quoted the law about not muzzling a bull when it is threshing grain. (1 Tim. 5:17, 18) Also, as part of Paul’s reasoning to show the Corinthians that “the Lord ordained for those proclaiming the good news to live by means of the good news,” he quoted Deuteronomy 25:4 and then wrote: “Is it bulls God is caring for? Or is it altogether for our sakes he says it? Really for our sakes it was written, because the man who plows ought to plow in hope and the man who threshes ought to do so in hope of being a partaker.”—1 Cor. 9:8-14.

MY

or, as commonly anglicized, mu [Μ ,μ].

The twelfth letter of the Greek alphabet, originating from the Hebrew mem. It corresponds generally with the English “m.”

My when accented has the value of forty (μ΄), and, with the subscript (,μ), 40,000.

MYRA

(Myʹra).

A major city in the province of Lycia. Situated near the coast of SW Asia Minor, Myra occupied a hill over two miles (3 kilometers) inland on the river Andracus. The site is now known as Dembre. Ruins there include rock-hewn tombs and a large theater with well-preserved decorations. The ancient name “Myra” apparently embraced both the city and its excellent harbor Andriaca at the mouth of the navigable river Andracus. Ruined quays still line this river. That Myra was a prominent port city may be inferred from its being the center for the worship of the sailors’ god. Mariners prayed to the deity before commencing long voyages and, upon arriving safely at their destination, paid their vows.

As a prisoner bound for Rome, the apostle Paul arrived at Myra from Caesarea by way of Sidon. There he and his traveling companions had to transfer to a grain ship from Alexandria that was sailing for Italy. (Acts 27:1-6, 38) Myra was due N of Alexandria and therefore may have been on the regular route of ships from that Egyptian city. Or, it may be that contrary winds (Acts 27:4, 7) forced the Alexandrian vessel to change its course and drop anchor at Myra.

At Acts 21:1 some ancient authorities add “and Myra” after “Patara.” (See JB, NE, RS footnotes.) Although this addition would not be out of harmony with the rest of the account, there is insufficient evidence for determining whether the name “Myra” actually appeared in the original manuscript.

MYRRH

An aromatic gum resin. (Song of Sol. 1:13; 4:6, 14; 5:1, 13) Its precise source in ancient times is uncertain. But generally myrrh is in most instances believed to have been the resin obtained from the low-growing thorny shrub or tree known as Commiphora myrrha or the related variety Commiphora kataf. Both of these shrubs thrive in rocky areas, particularly on limestone hills. Their wood and bark have a strong odor. Although the resin exudes by itself from the stem or the thick and stiff branches of either variety, the flow can be increased by means of incisions. Initially the clear, white or yellowish-brown resin is soft and sticky but, upon dripping to the ground, it hardens and turns dark red or black.

Myrrh was one of the ingredients for the holy anointing oil. (Ex. 30:23-25) Esteemed for its fragrance, it was used to scent garments, beds and other items. (Compare Psalm 45:8; Proverbs 7:17; Song of Solomon 3:6, 7.) The Shulammite maiden of The Song of Solomon appears to have applied liquid myrrh to her body before retiring for the night. (Song of Sol. 5:2, 5) Massages with oil of myrrh were included in the special beauty treatment given to Esther. (Esther 2:12) Myrrh was also one of the substances employed in preparing bodies for burial. (John 19:39, 40) It was apparently viewed as having sufficient value to be presented as a gift to one born king of the Jews.—Matt. 2:1, 2, 11.

MYRTLE

[Heb., hadhasʹ].

The myrtle (Myrtus communis) grows as either a shrub or a tree and is common in Palestine and Lebanon, growing well in stony soil. It is capable of reaching a height of thirty feet (9.1 meters) but is usually found as a shrub of from two to four feet (.6 to 1.2 meters) in height. An evergreen, it is quite bushy in branch structure, has thick, shiny, dark-green leaves, and blossoms with clusters of fragrant white flowers that mature into blue-black berries. Almost the entire plant has a fragrant spicy oil used in perfumes. The berries, though aromatic, are edible. The myrtle is found today particularly in the Mount Carmel region and in Galilee but also grows in the Jerusalem area, as it evidently did at the time of Zechariah’s vision recorded at Zechariah 1:8-11, 16.

Fragrant branches of myrtle were used along with the branches of other trees to cover the temporary outdoor huts or booths used by the Hebrews during the ‘festival of booths.’ (Neh. 8:14, 15) In the restoration prophecies the myrtle tree with its fragrance and beauty is foretold to grow in place of the stinging nettle and to spring up even in the wilderness.—Isa. 41:19; 55:13.

The name of Esther, wife of Persian King Ahasuerus, was “Hadassah” in Hebrew and hence derived from the name of the myrtle tree.—Esther 2:7.

MYSIA

(Mysʹi·a).

A region in the northwestern part of Asia Minor. Its boundaries appear to have fluctuated, but basically Mysia was bounded from W to N by the Aegean Sea, the Hellespont (Dardanelles) and Propontis (Sea of Marmara). Bithynia lay to the E and Lydia to the S. (See ASIA.) While on his second missionary journey, Paul, accompanied by Silas and Timothy, endeavored to go to Bithynia, but “the spirit of Jesus did not permit them. So they passed Mysia by and came down to Troas.” (Acts 15:40; 16:1-3, 7, 8) Since the seaport of Troas was in Mysia, evidently this means that Paul and his companions, although going through Mysia, omitted it as a field of missionary activity. Other cities of Mysia were Adramyttium (Acts 27:2), Assos (Acts 20:13, 14) and Pergamum.—Rev. 1:11; see TROAS.

MYSTERY

See SACRED SECRET.

NAAM

(Naʹam) [pleasantness].

Son of Caleb, Jephunneh’s son, of the tribe of Judah.—1 Chron. 4:1, 15.

NAAMAH

(Naʹa·mah) [pleasant, delightful, sweet].

1. Descendant of Cain; sister of Tubal-cain and the daughter of Lamech by Zillah.—Gen. 4:17-19, 22.

2. Ammonite wife of Solomon and mother of Rehoboam.—1 Ki. 14:21; 2 Chron. 12:13.

3. A Judean city in the Shephelah. (Josh. 15:20, 33, 41) Its exact location is uncertain. However, Khirbet Farad, about five miles (8 kilometers) N-NE of the suggested site of Libnah, has been presented as a possible identification. Nearby ʽAraq Naʽaman is believed to preserve the ancient name.

NAAMAN

(Naʹa·man) [pleasantness].

1. A grandson of Benjamin through his firstborn Bela. (1 Chron. 8:1-4, 7) Having founded a family, the Naamites in the tribe of Benjamin (Num. 26:40), Naaman himself is elsewhere listed as one of the “sons” of Benjamin.—Gen. 46:21.

2. A Syrian army chief of the tenth century B.C.E., during the reigns of Jehoram of Israel and Ben-hadad of Syria. Naaman, ‘a great, valiant, mighty man held in esteem,’ was the one by whom “Jehovah had given salvation to Syria.” (2 Ki. 5:1) The Bible gives no details as to how or why Naaman was used to bring this salvation to Syria. One possibility is that Naaman headed the Syrian forces that successfully resisted the efforts of Assyrian King Shalmaneser III to overrun Syria. Since, by remaining free, Syria formed a buffer state between Israel and Assyria, this may have served the purpose of slowing down Assyria’s aggressive push in the W until Jehovah’s due time to allow the northern kingdom to go into captivity.

CURED OF LEPROSY

Naaman was a leper, and while the Syrians did not demand his isolation as Jehovah’s law required of lepers in Israel, yet to learn how he might be cured of this loathsome disease was indeed welcome news. Such news came to him through his wife’s Israelite slave girl who told of a prophet in Samaria who could cure leprosy. Immediately Naaman set out for Samaria with a letter of introduction from Ben-hadad. However, Israelite King Jehoram, after receiving him with coolness and suspicion, sent him to Elisha. Elisha did not meet Naaman personally, but, instead, had his