the entire organization of God and has been in operation among those worshiping God, as well as among many other peoples. God occupies the position of a husband to his “woman,” the “Jerusalem above.” (Gal. 4:26, 31; Rev. 12:1, 4-6, 13-17) The Jewish national organization was in relationship of a wife to Jehovah as husband.—Isa. 54:5, 6; Jer. 31:32.

In patriarchal law the husband was the undisputed head of the family, the wife being in submission, though she could make recommendations subject to the husband’s approval. (Gen. 21:8-14) Sarah called Abraham “lord.” (Gen. 18:12; 1 Pet. 3:5, 6) A head covering was worn by the woman as a sign of her subjection to her husbandly head.—Gen. 24:65; 1 Cor. 11:5.

Under the Law given to Israel the wife was in subjection. Vows she made were subject to the husband to allow or annul. (Num. 30:6-16) She did not inherit, but went along with the land inheritance, and in the event that the inheritance was repurchased by a kinsman, she was included. (Ruth 4:5, 9-11) She could not divorce her husband, but the husband had the right to divorce his wife.—Deut. 24:1-4.

In the Christian arrangement, the woman is required to recognize the man’s position and not usurp it. The apostle Paul speaks of the married woman as being under the law of her husband as long as he is alive, but points out that she is freed by his death, so that she is not an adulteress if she then remarries.—Rom. 7:2, 3; 1 Cor. 7:39.

“KINGLY LAW”

The “kingly law” is that of the great King Jehovah. (Jas. 2:8) The tenor of the Law covenant was love, and “you must love your neighbor as yourself” was the second of the commandments on which all the Law and the Prophets hung. (Matt. 22:37-40) Christians, though not under the Law covenant, are subject to the law of the King Jehovah and his Son, the King Jesus Christ, under the new covenant.

SOME FEATURES OF THE LAW COVENANT

I. CIVIL GOVERNMENT

A. Jehovah God the Supreme Sovereign

1. The administrative, legislative and judicial Head of government and Head of religion (Isa. 33:22)

2. The one with sole right to delegate governmental authority (Dan. 4:25, 35; 7:13, 14)

3. “You must never have any other gods against my face,” that is, “in defiance of me” (Deut. 5:7; Ex. 20:3)

4. Idolatry forbidden (Ex. 20:4-6; Deut. 5:8-10)

a. Idolatry was lese majesty, treason against the sovereign power of the state, rebellion (Ex. 22:20; Deut. 8:19)

b. Names of other gods not to be mentioned (Ex. 23:13)

c. No form of God seen by Israelites to copy (Deut. 4:15-20)

B. Practices of false worship forbidden

1. Cutting sidelocks short, or cutting off extremity of beard (Lev. 19:27)

2. Making cuts in flesh for the dead (Lev. 19:28)

3. Tattooing bodies (Lev. 19:28)

4. Making baldness on oneself for the dead (Deut. 14:1) (The four preceding acts were practices of pagan religions.) (Jer. 48:36, 37)

5. Planting tree as sacred pole near altar of Jehovah (Deut. 16:21)

6. Stone figures, images, sacred high places of Canaanites not to be preserved (Num. 33:51, 52; Deut. 7:25)

7. Bringing things detestable, devoted to destruction, into one’s house (Deut. 7:26; 13:17)

8. Speaking of revolt against Jehovah as false prophet (Deut. 13:5)

9. Advocating false worship by anyone, to bring death penalty (Deut. 13:6-10; 17:2-7)

10. Cities going over to false worship; to be destroyed (Nothing of the city to be taken; all to be burned, except that gold, silver, copper, iron, were to be given to treasure of Jehovah’s sanctuary.) (Deut. 13:12-16; Josh. 6:19, 24)

11. Devoting of offspring to other gods, to be punished by death (Lev. 18:21, 29)

12. Practicing interfaith

a. No covenant permitted with pagan gods or nations of Canaan (Ex. 23:32; 34-12)

b. Not to go by statutes of Egypt or Canaan (Lev. 18:3-5)

C. Rulers in Israel

1. King to be chosen by Jehovah, not elected; could not be foreigner (Deut. 17:15)

a. Not to increase horses (Deut. 17:16)

b. Not to multiply wives nor increase silver and gold (Deut. 17:17)

c. To write a personal copy of Jehovah’s law and read in it every day (Deut. 17:18, 19)

2. Inferior officers

a. Chieftains of tribes (Num. 1:4, 16, 44)

b. Officers, chiefs of thousands and of hundreds (Num. 31:14)

c. Other chiefs over fifties and over tens (Ex. 18:21, 25)

3. Rulers to be respected (Ex. 22:28)

D. Census taken by Moses at Jehovah’s command (Num. 1:1-3; 3:14, 15; 4:1-3; 26:2)

1. All men twenty years old and upward taxed one-half shekel when census taken after coming out of Egypt. (Ex. 30:11-16) Though it may have been done, there is no record of its being commanded by Jehovah at other times

E. Membership in the congregation of Israel—including enjoying privileges and obligations enjoined on Israelites, entering temple precincts, partaking of passover, etc.

1. All male Jews entitled to citizenship, with following exceptions:

a. No man castrated by crushing testicles or having male member cut off (Deut. 23:1)

b. Neither an illegitimate son nor his descendants to tenth generation (Deut. 23:2)

2. No Ammonite or Moabite man to time indefinite, because they would not extend hospitality but opposed Israel upon exodus from Egypt (Deut. 23:3-6)

3. Edomites not to be detested

4. Egyptians of third generation of those who had lived as foreign residents in Israel could be admitted (Deut. 23:7, 8)

F. Aliens

1. Three kinds of these

a. The circumcised alien resident

b. The uncircumcised alien resident or settler in the land (Lev. 25:47)

c. The uncircumcised foreigner passing through or temporarily residing in the land (Deut. 15:3)

2. Such were not to be mistreated (Ex. 22:21; 23:9; Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 24:17)

3. Circumcised alien resident to observe Passover (Ex. 12:48, 49; Num. 9:14); must offer up sacrifices (Num. 15:14-16)

4. Aliens could not own Hebrew slaves permanently; Israelites were Jehovah’s slaves, on God’s land that he had assigned to them (Lev. 25:47-49, 55)

5. Release from being pressed for payment of debt on the seventh year did not apply to foreigners (Deut. 15:1-3); could also be made to pay interest (Deut. 23:20)

6. A dead animal might be given or sold to the uncircumcised alien resident or the foreigner, for such were not worshipers of Jehovah; hence, eating it would not violate their consciences (Deut. 14:21) (A circumcised alien resident was thus obligated to obey the entire Law, but even the uncircumcised stranger logically could not flagrantly infringe on any fundamental laws of the land.)

G. Slaves and slavery

1. Slaves could be bought or persons could sell themselves into slavery for debt (Ex. 21:2; Lev. 25:39, 45, 47, 48); or one could be sold if he could not make compensation for theft (Ex. 22:3)

2. No Hebrews, only foreigners, resident aliens or settlers could be permanent slaves. (Lev. 25:44-46) But see point 4, which follows

3. Hebrew slave was released in seventh year of his (or her) servitude or at Jubilee year, whichever came first. During slavery, to be treated as hired laborer, with kindness (Ex. 21:2; Deut. 15:12; Lev. 25:10)

a. If man came in with wife, she went out or was freed with him (Ex. 21:3)

b. If master gave him a wife (evidently a foreigner) while he was in slavery, only he went free; if this wife had borne him children, she and children remained property of master (Ex. 21:4)

4. In his seventh year of servitude, year of his release, Hebrew slave could remain with master if the slave desired (Ex. 21:5, 6; Deut. 15:16, 17)

5. If Hebrew sold his daughter to another Hebrew, he could take her as concubine; otherwise she could be redeemed but not sold to foreigner. If, however, the master designated her the wife of his son, she had to be treated with right of daughter. The son was required to give her undiminished sustenance, clothing and marriage due, even if he took another wife. If he did not do so, she was to be freed without a redemption price (Ex. 21:7-11)

6. Non-Hebrew slaves could be passed on from father to son (Lev. 25:44-46)

7. Women captives were considered as spoil (Deut. 20:14); could be taken as slaves (Judg. 5:30) or could be taken by soldiers as wives after following certain required procedure. If later displeasing to husband, she was to be sent away agreeably to her own soul (Deut. 21:10-14)

8. Slave could be flogged by master. (Ex. 21:20, 21) If maimed, was given freedom (Ex. 21:26, 27)

9. Slave who died under his master’s beating: master could be punished by death to avenge slave. Judges would decide the penalty (Ex. 21:20, 21; Lev. 24:17)

10. All male slaves had to be circumcised (Gen. 17:12; Ex. 12:44)

11. Circumcised slaves could eat passover, and slaves of priest could eat holy things (Ex. 12:43, 44; Lev. 22:10, 11)

12. Compensation to master for a slave gored by bull was thirty shekels (Ex. 21:32)

13. If Hebrew had sold himself as slave to alien resident or to a settler, the Hebrew could be repurchased by one with repurchase right or by himself at any time, amount based on number of years until Jubilee year or until his seventh year, the year of release (Lev. 25:47-52; Deut. 15:12)

14. On freeing Hebrew slave, master had to give him gift according to his ability to give (Deut. 15:13-15)

15. Forced return of fugitive slave forbidden (apparently applied to a slave who fled from a master in a foreign land, seeking refuge in Israel) (Deut. 23:15, 16)

II. MILITARY LAWS

A. Wars were wars of Jehovah. (Num. 21:14; 2 Chron. 20:15) Therefore soldiers were sanctified before going into battle (1 Sam. 21:1-6; compare Leviticus 15:16, 18.)

B. Age of soldiers, twenty years old and upward (Num. 1:2, 3; 26:1-4) (According to Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book III, chap. XII, par. 4, they served up to age of fifty years.)

C. Exempted from military service

1. Levites, as ministers of Jehovah (Num. 1:47-49; 2:33)

2. Man who had not inaugurated newly built house (Deut. 20:5)

3. Man who had not used newly planted vineyard (Deut. 20:6) (These latter two exemptions harmonize with principle that man has right to enjoy fruits of his work [Eccl. 2:24; 3:12, 13].)

4. Man who had become engaged and had not yet taken his wife. The newly married man continued exempt one year (This exemption was based on right of man to have heir and to see this heir.) (Deut. 20:7; 24:5)

5. Man who was fearful. He would tend to break down morale of fellow soldiers (Deut. 20:8; Judg. 7:3)

D. Since soldiers were sanctified for warfare, cleanliness was required in camp (Deut. 23:9-14)

1. No women allowed as “camp followers” for sex relations, because relations with women were abstained from during campaign. This ensured religious and physical cleanliness (Lev. 15:18; 1 Sam. 21:5; 2 Sam. 11:6-11)

2. No raping of women among enemy, for this would be fornication; and no marriage with such women until campaign was over. This not only provided for religious cleanliness but also was an inducement for enemy surrender, for they would be assured that their women would not be molested (Deut. 21:10-13)

E. Military procedure against enemy cities

1. If city attacked belonged to one of seven nations of land of Canaan mentioned at Deuteronomy 7:1, no surrender terms would be offered, but all inhabitants were to be devoted to destruction, including women and children. (Deut. 20:15-17; Josh. 11:11-14; Deut. 2:32-34; 3:1-7) If left in the land, these would be danger to continued relationship of Israel with Jehovah God. He had let them live in land until their iniquity had come to completion. (Gen. 15:13-21) With exception of Jericho (firstfruits of conquest of the land, devoted to Jehovah, from which city no personal spoil could be taken), spoil could be taken by Israelite soldiers from cities of these nations (Josh. 11:14)

2. In cities not belonging to the seven nations, terms of peace would first be proclaimed. (Deut. 20:10, 15) If city surrendered, inhabitants were put to forced labor. If they did not surrender, all males and all women not virgins were killed. Others were spared as captives. (Deut. 20:11-14; compare Numbers 31:7, 17, 18.) Killing all men removed danger of later revolt by city and also marriage of these men to Israelite women. These measures also helped to avoid phallic worship and diseases among Israelites

3. Trees producing food could not be cut down and used for siege works (Deut. 20:19, 20)

4. Horses were hamstrung to incapacitate them for battle and later were killed; chariots were burned (Josh. 11:6)

III. JUDICIAL SYSTEM

A. Priests, kings, and other men appointed as judges sat in judgment of cases (Ex. 18:25, 26; Num. 11:16, 17, 24, 25; Deut. 16:18; 17:8, 9; 1 Ki. 3:6, 9-12; 2 Chron. 19:5, 8-11)

B. Standing before judges was considered as standing before Jehovah (Deut. 1:17; 19:16, 17)

C. All ordinary cases were submitted to judges. At times these could judge murder cases. Levites were used extensively in lower courts (Ex. 18:21, 22; Deut. 25:1, 2; 1 Chron. 23:3, 4; 2 Chron. 19:8-10)

D. If lower court could not make decision, case would go to higher courts (Ex. 18:25, 26; Deut. 1:17; 17:8-11; 1 Ki. 3:16, 28)

E. Exceptional or hard cases were taken to the priests

1. Cases of jealousy or unchastity of wife (Num. 5:12-15)

2. Where witness charged another with revolt (Deut. 19:16, 17)

3. Every violent deed, or one causing bloodshed, where decision was hard, or where disputed (Deut. 17:8, 9; 21:5)

4. Where man was found slain in field and murderer could not be identified, priests were called in along with elders of city nearest crime’s location (Deut. 21:1-9)

F. Accidental manslayer could flee to refuge city. Then trial held before assembly, that is, in jurisdiction where alleged accident occurred. If found to be truly accidental, unintentional manslayer was returned to his city of refuge. If he was deliberate murderer, he would be put to death (Josh. 20:1-6; Num. 35:12, 22-25; Deut. 19:4-7)

G. At least two eyewitnesses required to establish truth (Deut. 17:6; 19:15; Num. 35:30)

1. Witness was to testify to that which he knew, and was not to take up untrue report (Lev. 5:1; Prov. 29:24; Ex. 23:1)

2. Hands of witnesses must be first to come upon guilty one and put him to death. This promoted zeal for righteousness in Israel and was deterrent to false, hasty or careless testimony (Deut. 17:7)

H. Father could not be put to death for sin of his son nor son for sin of father (Deut. 24:16)

I. Custody exercised only until case was decided by Jehovah. No sentences to imprisonment according to Law. (Lev. 24:11-16, 23; Num. 15:32-36) Later on, as nation deteriorated, and during time of Gentile domination, imprisonment was practiced (2 Chron. 18:25, 26; Jer. 20:2; 29:26; Ezra 7:26)

J. Strokes in punishment limited to forty, to avoid disgraceful beating (Deut. 25:1-3)

K. Death sentence, usually by stoning. (Deut. 13:10) Sometimes criminal’s body, after stoning to death, was put on a stake as one accursed and as warning example (Deut. 21:22, 23)

L. Burning. Criminal was first put to death, then dead body burned as something detestable (Josh. 7:24, 25)

M. Law of retaliation—retribution, a like punishment (Lev. 24:17-21)

N. Damages

1. For letting animals graze in another’s field or vineyard: compensation with best of his own field or vineyard (because animals’ owner gained by their eating) (Ex. 22:5)

2. For kindling fire that damaged another’s property: compensation (Ex. 22:6)

3. For killing domestic animal: full compensation (Lev. 24:18, 21)

4. Animal killing another animal: sell live one and divide price, also divide price of dead animal (Ex. 21:35)

5. For bull having habit of goring, but not under guard: compensation with live bull for dead one, but dead one would go to owner of goring bull (he could sell it) (Ex. 21:36; see IV, F, 9, below.)

6. Unintentional sin against the holy things of Jehovah (Lev. 5:15, 16)

a. Unintentional appropriation to one’s own use of something “holy,” such as tithes, firstfruits, sacrifices, and so forth

b. Must confess what he had done (Compare Leviticus 5:5, 16.)

c. Compensation plus 20 percent to be given to sanctuary, besides offering ram of guilt offering, according to estimated value (apparently the value the priest assessed commensurate with the seriousness of guilt)

7. Deceiving one’s associate about something in his charge or a deposit in hand or a robbery, or finding something and being deceptive about it and swearing falsely concerning these things (Lev. 6:2-7)

a. Must confess what he has done (Compare Leviticus 5:5; 6:5.)

b. Must return to the owner the thing in question, adding 20 percent (compare Matthew 5:23, 24); if associate had died or could not be found, payment went to a near relative; if no relative, payment went to the sanctuary (Num. 5:6-8)

c. Must offer ram according to the estimated value (apparently the value the priest assessed commensurate with the seriousness of guilt)

8. For loss of animal falling into pit: compensation, but owner of the pit got dead animal (which he could sell to recover some of his loss) (Ex. 21:33, 34)

O. Bailments

1. Money or other articles given to another to be kept for safekeeping

a. If a thief stole such, double compensation from thief if he was found (Ex. 22:7)

b. If thief was not found, owner, of house (bailee) must take oath as to whether he put his hand upon goods. Then this oath was to be accepted by owner of article and no compensation made (Ex. 22:8, 10, 11)

c. If an animal had been lost, or anything identifiable, double compensation would be assessed on one unlawfully holding it (Ex. 22:9)

2. If ass, bull or sheep or any domestic animal left with someone died, got maimed, or was led off (wandered off or was driven away by robbers) while no one was looking (no eyewitnesses), bailee must take oath that he did not put his hand on animal, and no compensation was required (Ex. 22:10, 11)

a. If animal was stolen from bailee, he must make compensation (Ex. 22:12) (Usually kept in pen or under guard at night.)

b. If animal was torn by wild beast, he must bring it as evidence, but no compensation was required (Ex. 22:13)

3. Animals borrowed for use

a. If it was maimed or died while its owner was not with it, compensation required (Ex. 22:14)

b. If its owner was with it, no compensation (Ex. 22:15)

c. If hired, it must come in its hire (because owner was getting money by hiring the animal out); no compensation (Ex. 22:15)

IV. CRIMINAL LAW

A. Bribery forbidden (Ex. 23:8; Deut. 16:19; 27:25)

B. Perjury forbidden. (Deut. 5:20; Ex. 20:16; 23:1; Lev. 19:12; Deut. 19:16-20) If perjury was false accusation against another person, then false witness would receive retribution (Deut. 19:18, 19)

C. Willful defiance of law and contempt of priests or judges punishable with death (Num. 15:30, 31; Deut. 17:12, 13)

D. Perverting and obstructing justice forbidden (Ex. 23:1, 2, 6, 7; Lev. 19:15, 35; Deut. 16:19)

E. Crimes against Jehovah God

1. Blasphemy; death penalty (Lev. 24:16)

2. Apostasy, sacrificing to other gods; death penalty (Ex. 22:20; Deut. 13:6-11)

3. Sorcery and spiritism; both carried death penalty (Ex. 22:18; Deut. 18:10-12)

4. False prophets to be put to death (Deut. 13:1-5; 18:20-22)

5. Desecration of sabbath day; violation of fourth commandment. Death penalty (Num. 15:32-36)

6. Swearing in God’s name to a lie (Lev. 19:12)

F. Crimes against persons or property (See also point III, N, “Damages.”)

1. Murder; violation of sixth commandment. Death penalty. (Ex. 20:13; Deut. 5:17; compare Genesis 9:6.) Hating person in past would be evidence against manslayer who claimed death to be accidental (Deut. 19:4-6)

2. Striking or cursing father or mother or son’s being incorrigibly rebellious; death penalty (Ex. 21:15, 17; Lev. 20:9; Deut. 21:18-21)

3. Pregnant woman accidentally injured in struggle between men: law of retaliation applied if accident resulted in fatality; if no fatal accident occurred, damages would be imposed by owner of woman (Ex. 21:22-25)

4. Assault where person recovers. Penalty: compensation for time lost from work (Ex. 21:18, 19)

5. Fornication with maidservant designated for another man, but not yet redeemed nor freed. Not the death penalty, but guilt offering to Jehovah required and punishment to be determined by judges (Lev. 19:20-22)

6. Stealing

a. Bull or sheep, if thief slaughtered or sold it. Compensation: five bulls, or four sheep (Ex. 22:1)

b. If live animal stolen was in his possession, he must make double compensation (Ex. 22:4)

c. If he had nothing, he was to be sold into slavery for things he stole (Ex. 22:3)

d. Items other than livestock stolen: double compensation (Ex. 22:7)

7. Burglary. If burglary took place in daytime, householder would have bloodguilt if he killed burglar. This was because burglar could be described or identified and apprehended by proper authorities. If burglary took place at night (motive of housebreaker unknown; it might be murder) and householder killed burglar while defending his property (and perhaps even his life), there would be no bloodguilt upon him (Ex. 22:2, 3)

8. Kidnapping. Kidnapper who sold a man, or one in whose hand the victim was found, would be put to death (Ex. 21:16; Deut. 24:7)

9. Assault by beast resulting in death. Beast must die, its flesh not to be eaten, but its owner remained free (Ex. 21:28)

a. If bull was in habit of goring and owner had been officially warned, but beast not kept under guard, bull to be stoned and the owner to die, or ransom for owner’s life to be imposed according to price judges determined (Ex. 21:29-31)

b. If one killed was slave man or slave girl, thirty shekels of silver to be given to slave’s master; bull to be stoned (Ex. 21:32)

10. Slander prohibited; could amount to standing up “against your fellow’s blood” (Might result in fellowman’s being killed or his being brought to court and sentenced to death, if slander included such serious accusations.) (Lev. 19:16; Ex. 23:1)

11. Using false weights and measures prohibited (Lev. 19:35-37; Deut. 25:13-16)

12. Moving boundary marks prohibited (Deut. 19:14)

G. Crimes against morality

1. Adultery forbidden; violation of seventh commandment. (Ex. 20:14; Lev. 18:20; Deut. 5:18; 22:22-24) Death penalty for both parties (Lev. 20:10)

2. Secret adultery on part of woman; penalty, belly to swell and thigh to fall away (euphemistic expression for atrophy of reproductive organs); she was to become a cursing among people. (Law required two eyewitnesses to adultery before judges could impose death penalty.) If innocent of charge, she was to be made pregnant by her husband (manifestation before all of her innocence and blessing of fruit of womb) (Num. 5:11-31)

3. Previous secret fornication on part of girl who marries while claiming to be a virgin. If husband charges wife was not virgin at time of marriage, parents to bring evidence of girl’s virginity before older men at gate of city. If charge is true, no such evidence being found, girl to be put to death. If charge false, man to pay fine of double the price for virgins (2 x 50 shekels) and could never divorce her (Deut. 22:13-21; compare Deuteronomy 22:28, 29.)

4. Attack on engaged girl by a man

a. If in city, girl must scream out, or was guilty (Deut. 22:23, 24)

b. If in field, girl who screamed (though no one heard to come to her rescue) was not guilty (Deut. 22:25-27)

c. Penalty was death for man. If girl consented or did not scream, she too was guilty and the penalty was death (Deut. 22:23-27)

5. Seduction of girl not engaged; man must pay father at rate of purchase money for virgins. Marriage to take place and man unable to divorce her all his days. If father refuses to give girl, man must nevertheless pay over money (Deut. 22:28, 29; Ex. 22:16, 17)

6. Prostitution forbidden (Deut. 23:17, 18; Lev. 19:29)

7. Priest’s daughter committing prostitution. Death, and burning afterward (She profanes her father and his sacred office.) (Lev. 21:9)

H. Incest. Marriage between certain relatives was forbidden

1. An Israelite man could not marry any of the following:

a. His mother, stepmother or a secondary wife of his father (Lev. 18:7, 8; 20:11; Deut. 22:30; 27:20)

b. His sister, stepsister or half sister (Lev. 18:9, 11; 20:17; Deut. 27:22)

c. His granddaughter (Lev. 18:10)

d. His aunt (either his mother’s sister or his father’s sister) (Lev. 18:12, 13; 20:19)

e. His aunt by marriage (either his father’s brother’s wife or his mother’s brother’s wife) (Lev. 18:14; 20:20)

f. His daughter-in-law (Lev. 18:15; 20:12)

g. His daughter, stepdaughter, stepdaughter’s daughter, stepson’s daughter, mother-in-law (Lev. 18:17; 20:14; Deut. 27:23)

h. Brother’s widow (Lev. 18:16; 20:21) (unless brother-in-law marriage necessary due to his death without a son—Deut. 25:5, 6)

i. His wife’s sister during his wife’s lifetime (Lev. 18:18)

2. An Israelite woman could not marry any of the following:

a. Her son or her stepson (Lev. 18:7, 8; 20:11; Deut. 22:30; 27:20)

b. Her brother, stepbrother or half brother (Lev. 18:9, 11; 20:17; Deut. 27:22)

c. Her grandfather (Lev. 18:10)

d. Her nephew (either her brother’s son or her sister’s son) (Lev. 18:12, 13; 20:19)

e. Her nephew (either her husband’s brother’s son or her husband’s sister’s son) (Lev. 18:14; 20:20)

f. Her father-in-law (Lev. 18:15; 20:12)

g. Her father, stepfather, mother’s stepfather, father’s stepfather, son-in-law (Lev. 18:7, 17; 20:14; Deut. 27:23)

h. Her husband’s brother (Lev. 18:16; 20:21) (unless brother-in-law marriage necessary due to husband’s death without a son—Deut. 25:5, 6)

i. Her sister’s husband during her sister’s lifetime (Lev. 18:18)

3. Penalty for incest: death (Lev. 18:29; 20:11, 12, 14, 17, 20, 21)

I. Intercourse with woman during menstruation forbidden. (Lev. 18:19) Death penalty. (Lev. 20:18) However, husband who had intercourse with her during such uncleanness (perhaps at unexpected beginning of menstruation, unwittingly) was unclean seven days (Lev. 15:19-24)

J. Deception, dealing falsely (Lev. 19:11)

K. Calling down evil on deaf man (Lev. 19:14)

L. Putting obstacle before blind man (Lev. 19:14)

M. Taking vengeance or bearing grudge counseled against (Lev. 19:18)

N. Covetousness prohibited. Violation of tenth commandment (Ex. 20:17; Deut. 5:21)

O. Wearing dress of opposite sex (to deceive for immoral purposes) prohibited (Deut. 22:5)

P. Indecent assault (woman in husband’s fight grabs hold of other man’s privates); penalty, amputation of her hand, instead of penalty of like for like, out of Jehovah’s regard for her reproductive powers and her husband’s right to have children by her (Deut. 25:11, 12)

Q. Sodomy; death penalty (Lev. 18:22; 20:13)

R. Bestiality; death penalty for person and beast (Ex. 22:19; Lev. 18:23, 29; 20:15, 16; Deut. 27:21)

V. MARRIAGE

A. Performed first by Jehovah (Gen. 2:18, 21-24)

B. Could be arranged between parents or by suitor with parents or guardians (Patriarchal principle at Genesis 24:2-4, 48-53; 29:18, 22-28 followed.—Judg. 14:1-4.)

C. Women must marry within tribe, if heirs of land (Num. 36:6-9)

D. Marriage compulsory after seduction (unless father of girl would not permit) and no divorce allowed. In either case, dowry to be paid (Ex. 22:16, 17; Deut. 22:28, 29)

E. Priests could not marry prostitute, violated woman or divorced woman. (Lev. 21:7) According to Ezekiel 44:22, priests could marry virgins of house of Israel or widow of another priest. High priest could take only virgin from his people as wife (Lev. 21:13, 14)

F. Levirate or brother-in-law marriage (to marry brother’s widow where deceased brother had no male offspring). One refusing to carry out levirate marriage was reproached (Deut. 25:5-10)

G. Marriage alliances with aliens forbidden. (Ex. 34:12-16; Deut. 7:1-4; Neh. 13:23-27) However, marriage with captive women permitted (Deut. 21:10-14)

H. Wife considered property of husband. (Deut. 5:21; 24:1; Ex. 20:17; Prov. 31:10, 11, 28) If wife made vow, her husband could affirm or cancel it (Num. 30:6-8, 10-15)

I. Divorce

1. Only husband was allowed to divorce (for something indecent on wife’s part) He was required to give wife written certificate of divorce (Deut. 24:1-4)

2. No divorce allowed if husband had married wife after seducing her (Deut. 22:28, 29)

3. Man could not remarry woman he divorced after she had married again, either if second man divorced her or died (Deut. 24:1-4)

VI. PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS

A. Children owed honor to parents (Ex. 20:12; 21:15, 17; Lev. 19:3; 20:9; Deut. 5:16; 21:18-21; 27:16)

B. Parents (especially fathers) commanded to teach children God’s law (Deut. 6:6-9, 20-25; 11:18-21; Isa. 38:19)

C. Father could affirm or disallow vow made by his unmarried daughter still in his house (Num. 30:3-5)

D. Father could arrange for marriage of sons (Judg. 14:2; compare Genesis 24:2-4; 28:1, 2.)

E. Parents could devote children to Jehovah’s sanctuary service (1 Sam. 1:11, 24-28; Judg. 11:30, 31, 39, 40)

F. Father could sell his daughter into slavery (Ex. 21:7)

VII. LAWS OF INHERITANCE

A. Firstborn son inherited double share of property (Deut. 21:15-17)

B. Firstborn son normally had authority next to family head (1 Sam. 17:28; 20:29)

C. Father was prohibited from taking right of firstborn and giving it to son of another wife on the basis that his firstborn was son of “hated” wife (Deut. 21:15-17)

D. Wife was not heir of husband, but if he died childless, she could be redeemed by one with right of repurchase along with property through levirate marriage arrangement (Ruth 4:1-12)

E. When there was no son, inheritance went to daughters. (Num. 27:6-8) If man had neither sons nor daughters, inheritance went to his brothers, or his father’s brothers, or his nearest blood relative (Num. 27:9-11)

F. Under levirate marriage law firstborn of deceased one’s brother by the dead man’s widow became heir of the property of the deceased (Deut. 25:5, 6)

G. Non-Israelite slaves could be inherited (Lev. 25:44-46)

H. Inheritance within one tribe could not be transferred to another tribe (Num. 36:1-12)

VIII. REAL PROPERTY

(Land, Buildings and Improvements Attached to Land)

A. Canaan, by command of Jehovah, was allotted among various tribes (Num. 26:52-56; Josh. 13:7-33; 18:2-10)

B. Land was allotted to families (Num. 33:54; 36:2)

1. One could not sell his land in perpetuity; land itself could not actually be sold, only value of its produce computed to year of Jubilee as price for possession till Jubilee (Lev. 25:15, 16, 23-28)

2. In case of houses in walled city, only one year was allowed for redemption, after which, if not redeemed, it was held by purchaser in perpetuity (except for Levite houses in their cities). Right of repurchase continued for houses in unwalled settlements, and such houses went out in the Jubilee (Lev. 25:29-31)

3. If there was a sale, nearest kinsman had right to buy (Jer. 32:7-15)

C. Share of Levites consisted of cities and their pasture grounds (48 allotted; 13 were priests’ cities.) (Num. 35:2-5; Josh. 21:3-42)

1. Levites as individuals had no material inheritance (Deut. 18:1, 2)

2. Field of pasture ground of a Levite city could not be sold; belonged to city, not individuals (Lev. 25:34)

D. If man sanctified (set aside the use or production of) part of a field to Jehovah (sanctuary use, priesthood), estimation of its value was on basis of area of ground that could be seeded by homer of barley. This area would be worth fifty shekels of silver, diminishing proportionately according to number of years left until next Jubilee (Lev. 27:16-18)

1. If sanctifier wanted to buy it back, he had to add 20 percent; otherwise it returned to him at Jubilee (Lev. 27:19)

2. If he did not buy it back but it was sold to another man, it could not be bought back again. At Jubilee it became possession of priest as holy to Jehovah (Lev. 27:20, 21)

3. If a man sanctified to Jehovah part of field he had purchased from another, at Jubilee it returned to original holder (Lev. 27:22-24)

E. If a man “devoted” anything of his own property (“devoted” things were permanently and solely for sanctuary use or for destruction [Josh. 6:17; 7:1, 15])—field, cattle or other thing, it could not be sold or bought back; it remained Jehovah’s (“as a field that is devoted” it could not be bought back) (Lev. 27:21, 28, 29)

F. The state did not have right of eminent domain, that is, right to seize one’s land inheritance for public purposes simply by paying compensation (1 Ki. 21:2-4)

G. Redemption of property

1. All land returned to original possessor at time of Jubilee (with previously noted exceptions) (Lev. 25:8-10, 15, 16, 24-28)

2. Levites might redeem their houses in Levite cities at any time (Lev. 25:32, 33)

H. Modes of transfer and recording

1. Deeds were sometimes used (Jer. 32:9-14)

2. Repurchasing of property by another when the one with first right of repurchase refused (Ruth 4:3-11)

I. Sabbath year: land was to lie fallow; owner not to gather in any harvest, but he and poor persons and animals could eat what grew of itself; for most part, people ate from stored-up provisions (Ex. 23:10, 11; Lev. 25:1-7, 20-22)

J. Jubilee year: began on Day of Atonement, in fiftieth year; counting started from year Israelites entered land (Lev. 25:2, 8-19)

IX. INDIVIDUAL CONDUCT AND DUTIES

A. Love for God (Deut. 6:4, 5; 11:1; 30:16, 19, 20)

B. Love for fellowman (Lev. 19:18; Deut. 10:19)

C. Fear of God (Deut. 5:29; 6:1, 2, 10-13, 24; 8:6, 10; 10:12, 20; 14:23; 17:19)

D. Congregating or assembling (Deut. 31:10-13)

1. All males to assemble three times a year: Passover and Festival of Unfermented Cakes, Festival of Weeks and Festival of Booths (Deut. 16:16; Lev. 23:1-43)

2. Man deliberately neglecting to keep Passover “cut off,” put to death (Num. 9:13)

E. Must keep vows; man or woman could take Nazirite vow (Deut. 23:21-23; Num. 6:2-12; 30:2)

1. Vow of daughter living in father’s house dependent on father (Num. 30:3-5)

2. Vow of engaged or married woman dependent on husband (Num. 30:6-8, 10-15)

F. Priests should not drink wine before going into sanctuary to serve; death penalty (Lev. 10:8, 9)

G. Respect for rulers (Ex. 22:28)

H. Wives’ duty to be in subjection to husbands. (Husband called “owner” [Ex. 21:22; Prov. 31:10, 11]) (Compare Genesis 3:16; 18:12; Romans 7:2; 1 Peter 3:1, 5, 6.)

I. To honor parents (Ex. 20:12; 21:15, 17)

J. Duties toward widows and orphans (Ex. 22:22-24; Deut. 24:17; 27:19)

K. Toward the poor (Ex. 23:6; Lev. 25:35, 39-43)

L. Toward alien residents (Ex. 22:21; 23:9; Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 10:17-19; 24:14, 15, 17; 27:19)

M. Toward needy and defenseless (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 24:14, 17; 27:18)

N. Toward slaves and hired laborers (Ex. 21:2; 23:12; Deut. 24:14, 15; 15:12-15)

O. Respect for aged (Lev. 19:32)

P. To act justly (Ex. 23:2, 3, 6; Lev. 19:15, 35)

Q. To return lost item to owner when found; if owner far away and unknown, item must be kept for owner until he searches for it (Deut. 22:1-3)

R. To construct parapet on house (to avoid bloodguilt due to person falling off roof) (Deut. 22:8)

S. Gleaning (Ex. 23:10, 11; Lev. 19:9, 10; 23:22; Deut. 24:19-21)

T. Not to interbreed two sorts of animals, sow field with two sorts of seeds or wear garment of two sorts of thread, mixed, or plow with a bull and ass together (Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:9-11)

U. To animals

1. To beasts of burden (Ex. 23:12; Deut. 22:10; Prov. 12:10)

2. To the threshing bull (Deut. 25:4)

3. To wild animals (Ex. 23:11; Lev. 25:5-7)

4. To mother and young (Lev. 22:28; Deut. 22:6, 7)

5. To help another’s animal in distress (Ex. 23:5; Deut. 22:4)

X. SANITARY AND DIETARY LAWS

(These served both to keep the Israelites separate from the pagan nations and to promote cleanliness and health.)

A. Flesh of clean animals could be eaten (Lev. 11:1-31; Deut. 12:20)

B. Eating of blood strictly forbidden (Gen. 9:4; Lev. 7:26; 17:12, 14; 19:26; Deut. 12:16, 23-25); penalty for violation: death (Lev. 7:27; 17:10)

1. Life (soul) is in blood (Lev. 17:11, 14; Deut. 12:23)

2. Blood of slaughtered animal must be poured out on ground like water and covered with dust (Lev. 17:13; Deut. 12:16)

3. No animal dying of itself or found dead could be eaten (because it was unclean and had not been properly drained of blood) (Deut. 14:21)

4. Only legal uses: blood was put upon altar for atonement; prescribed cleansing purposes (Lev. 17:11, 12; Deut. 12:27; Num. 19:1-9)

C. No fat to be eaten; fat belonged to Jehovah (Lev. 3:16, 17; 7:23, 24)

1. Fat from dead body or animal torn to pieces could be used in some other way, but could not be eaten (Lev. 7:24)

2. Eating fat of offering brought death penalty (Lev. 7:25)

D. Under Law, in wilderness all domestic animals to be slaughtered must be brought to tabernacle. They would be eaten as communion sacrifices (Lev. 17:3-6)

1. Penalty for violation, death (Lev. 17:4, 8, 9)

2. Wild animals caught in hunting could be killed on the spot; blood must be poured out (Lev. 17:13, 14)

3. After entering Promised Land, clean animals could be slaughtered for food in the place of one’s residence if he was far from Jerusalem, but blood had to be poured on ground (Deut. 12:20-25)

E. Animals, fish, birds, insects permitted or prohibited for food

1. Every creature that splits hoof, forming a cleft therein, and chews cud permitted (Lev. 11:2, 3; Deut. 14:6)

2. Prohibited animals: (a) Camel (chews cud only; does not have split hoofs; hoof split on top, but not clear through; only forepart divided) (b) Rock badger (chews cud only); (c) Hare (chews cud only); (d) Pig (splits hoof only) (Lev. 11:4-8; Deut. 14:7, 8; see articles on animals under individual names.)

3. Everything in the waters that has fins and scales permitted (Lev. 11:9-12; Deut. 14:9, 10)

4. Prohibited among birds and flying creatures: Eagle (bird of prey of falcon family [Prov. 30:17]); osprey (a large hawk; fish hawk); black vulture (a carrion eater); red kite (bird of prey, hawk family); black kite; glede; raven; ostrich; owl (bird of prey; voracious); gull (scavenger); falcon (bird of prey); little owl; long-eared owl; swan; pelican; vulture (carrion eater); cormorant; stork; heron; hoopoe (has filthy habits); bat; any winged swarming creature that goes on all fours (that is, having locomotion in the manner of animals that walk on four legs) (Deut. 14:12-19; Lev. 11:13-20; see BIRDS and articles on individual birds.)

5. Permitted among insects and winged swarming creatures: all that go upon all fours and have leaper legs. Migratory locust, edible locust, cricket and grasshopper (all according to their kinds) (Lev. 11:21, 22; see articles on individual insects.)

6. Prohibited among the swarming creatures on the earth: Mole rat; jerboa (jumping rodent with long hind legs); lizard; gecko fanfoot (a small lizard); large lizard; newt (form of salamander); sand lizard; chameleon (color-changing lizard); any creature that goes upon the belly, on all fours (style of locomotion), or on any great number of feet (Lev. 11:29, 30, 42; see articles on individual creatures.)

7. Animal that died of itself or was already dead or torn by wild beast could not be eaten; if torn by wild beast, to be thrown to dogs (even if such animal was normally clean and so usable for food) (Lev. 17:15, 16; Deut. 14:21; Ex. 22:31)

8. Animals presented as vow or voluntary offerings, communion sacrifices, could be eaten on day offered and on second but not on third day; penalty, death. Thanksgiving sacrifice to be eaten on that day—none to be saved over until morning (second day). Passover must not be left over; what was not eaten to be burned (Lev. 7:16-18; 19:5-8; 22:29, 30; Ex. 12:10)

F. Things making unclean

1. All prohibited creatures, if eaten or if dead bodies are touched. Clean animal that died of itself, if touched, person unclean till evening; if one ate or carried it, must wash garments (Lev. 11:8, 11, 24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 36, 39, 40; 17:15, 16)

2. Vessels, jar stands, ovens, garments, skins, sackcloth, unclean by reason of contact with dead bodies of unclean creatures (Lev. 11:32-35)

a. Earthenware vessels, ovens, jar stands, had to be broken (These were porous, more likely to retain uncleanness.) (Lev. 11:33-35)

b. Other vessels must be put in water; unclean until evening (Lev. 11:32)

c. Only spring and pit of impounded waters continued clean if dead unclean creature fell in (Lev. 11:34, 36)

d. Seeds not unclean, unless water had been put upon them (Water would cause uncleanness to penetrate seed.) (Lev. 11:37, 38)

3. Emission of semen; person to bathe and be unclean, until evening (Lev. 15:16)

a. Garment touched by semen washed and unclean until evening (Lev. 15:17)

b. Woman, in case of intercourse, to bathe and be unclean until evening (Lev. 15:18)

4. Women, due to childbirth

a. Woman unclean seven days after bearing a male, plus thirty-three days (first seven days, unclean to all, as in menstruation; thirty-three days unclean only as to touching holy things, such as sacrificial meals or coming into the holy place) (Lev. 12:2-4)

b. If child female, woman unclean fourteen days, plus sixty-six (shows priority of male) (Lev. 12:5)

5. Woman’s menstruation (Lev. 12:2)

a. Woman unclean seven days in regular menstruation; during entire period of abnormal or extended discharge of blood, plus seven days (Lev. 15:19, 25, 28)

b. During her uncleanness anything on which she may sit or lie down, unclean (Lev. 15:20)

c. Person touching her or her bed or what she sits on must wash garments and bathe and be unclean until evening (Lev. 15:21-23)

d. If her menstrual impurity comes to be upon a man, he is unclean seven days and any bed upon which he might lie is unclean (Lev. 15:24)

e. Any time she has running discharge she is unclean (Lev. 15:25-27)

G. Diseases

1. Leprosy and other plagues—priest determined whether leprosy or otherwise (Lev. 13:2)

a. Procedure: Person quarantined seven days; examined, and, if plague had stopped, quarantined seven more days (Lev. 13:4, 5, 21, 26); if plague had not spread, pronounced clean (Lev. 13:6); if plague spread, it was leprosy (Lev. 13:7, 8)

b. If leprous, person to have garments torn, his head should become ungroomed, he should cover over mustache (or upper lip); should call out “Unclean, unclean!” Dwelt isolated outside camp until plague cured (Lev. 13:31, 45, 46; Num. 5:2-4)

c. Baldness did not make one unclean (Lev. 13:40, 41)

2. Garments with malignant “leprosy” (perhaps a mold or mildew). Procedure: Quarantined seven days; if then leprous, burned. (Lev. 13:47-52) Otherwise, washed and quarantined another seven days; if spot dull after washing, spot torn out. If plague disappeared, washed again and considered clean (Lev. 13:53-59)

3. ‘Leprous’ house (perhaps affected with a fungus)

a. Procedure: First cleared out house and called priest (Lev. 14:36); quarantined seven days (Lev. 14:38); if then leprous, stones with plague torn out, thrown outside city in unclean place (Lev. 14:40); house scraped off all around inside, mortar poured outside city in unclean place (Lev. 14:41); new stones put in and house plastered (Lev. 14:42)

b. If plague returned, entire house pulled down (Lev. 14:43-45)

c. Anyone going into quarantined house unclean until evening (Lev. 14:46)

4. Genital discharge (evidently due to diseased condition) (Lev. 15:2, 3)

a. Bed or articles unclean if lain on or sat on by such person (Lev. 15:4)

b. Anyone touching the affected one, his bed or whatever he was sitting on, unclean, or if affected person spat on another, he was rendered unclean (Lev. 15:5-11)

c. Earthenware vessels smashed, wooden one rinsed with water, if touched by one having running discharge (Lev. 15:12)

d. After discharge stopped, person unclean seven days (Lev. 15:13)

5. Safeguarding military camp

a. Private place outside for each to cover excrement (Deut. 23:12, 13)

b. Pollution occurring at night made person unclean until next evening; he had to stay outside camp (Deut. 23:9-11)

6. Regulations concerning bodies of dead persons

a. Touching corpse, bone or burial place of human made one unclean seven days (even when on open field) (Num. 19:11, 16)

b. Death for refusing to purify self. (Num. 19:12, 13) (See cleansing procedure at Numbers 19:17-19.)

c. Opened vessel on which no lid tied down unclean, also all who were in or came Into tent (Num. 19:14, 15)

7. In spoil taken from city, everything that could be processed with fire should be so processed (metals), then passed through water for cleansing; other things must be washed (Num. 31:20, 22, 23)

XI. BUSINESS PRACTICES

A. Accurate scales, weights and measures (Lev. 19:35, 36; Deut. 25:13-15)

B. Proper calculation of value of land (based on time until Jubilee year) (Lev. 25:14-17)

C. Granting right of repurchase of land (Lev. 25:24)

D. Release at end of every seven years from pressure on Hebrew brothers to pay debts (Deut. 15:1, 2); could press foreigner for payment of debt (Deut. 15:3)

E. Hired laborers, in trouble or poor, whether of brothers or alien residents, must be paid that day (Deut. 24:14, 15)

F. If taking a person’s outer garment as security for a loan, one must not keep it overnight (The poor often slept in the garment for lack of other bedclothes. He might suffer from cold if deprived of it at night.) (Ex. 22:26, 27; Deut. 24:12, 13)

1. One could not enter another man’s house to get a pledge or something as security for a loan. He must remain outside the house and let the person bring it out to him (This maintained the inviolability of the man’s domain.) (Deut. 24:10, 11)

2. One could not take a hand mill or its upper grindstone for security (The person then could not grind grain for himself and family. Hence, “it is a soul that he is seizing as a pledge.”) (Deut. 24:6)

LAWGIVER

A maker of laws; a legislator. There are countless humans who have served in a legislative capacity, making laws for nations and communities. However, the Bible centers attention on Jehovah as the fundamental Lawgiver of the universe.

JEHOVAH AS THE LAWGIVER

Jehovah is actually the one true Lawgiver in the universe. Attributable to him are the physical laws governing material creation, inanimate things (Job 38:4-38; Ps. 104:5-19) and animals. (Job 39:1-30) Man also, as a creation of Jehovah, is subject to Jehovah’s physical laws and, being a moral, rational creature, capable of reasoning and of spirituality, is equally subject to his moral laws. (Rom. 12:1; 1 Cor. 2:14-16) Furthermore, his law governs spirit creatures, angels.—Ps. 103:20; 2 Pet. 2:4, 11.

Jehovah’s physical laws are unbreakable. (Jer. 33:20, 21) Throughout the known visible universe his laws are so stable and reliable that, in areas where scientists have knowledge of these laws, they can calculate the movements of the moon, planets, and so forth, with split-second accuracy. One who goes contrary to the physical laws experiences immediate application of their sanctions. Likewise, the moral laws of God are irrevocable and cannot be circumvented or violated with impunity. They are as sure of enforcement as His natural laws, though the punishment may not be as immediately enforced. “God is not one to be mocked. For whatever a man is sowing, this he will also reap.”—Gal. 6:7; 1 Tim. 5:24.

Whereas from Adam’s rebellion to the Flood badness increased among the majority of his descendants, some faithful men “kept walking with the true God.” (Gen. 5:22-24; 6:9; Heb. 11:4-7) The only specific commands recorded as given to such men by God are the instructions to Noah in connection with the ark. These Noah obeyed implicitly. (Gen. 6:13-22) Nevertheless, there were principles and precedents to guide them in their “walking with the true God.”

They knew of God’s bounteous generosity in providing for man in Eden, the evidence of divine unselfishness and loving interest. They knew that the principle of headship was in effect from the start, God’s headship over man, the man’s headship over woman. They knew of God’s assignment of work to man, His concern for proper care of the things given to man for his use and enjoyment. They knew that sexual unions were to be between man and woman and that those so uniting were to do so, not as a momentary thing (as in fornication), but as entering into a family relationship, ‘leaving father and mother’ to form such a lasting union. They could appreciate the principle of ownership rights, and due respect for such, in God’s command regarding the use of the trees of the garden of Eden and the tree of the knowledge of good and bad in particular. They realized the bad results coming from the first lie. They knew of God’s approval of Abel’s course of worship, God’s disapproval of Cain’s envy and hatred of his brother and God’s punishment of Cain’s murder of Abel.—Gen. 1:26–4:16.

Thus, even without further specific statements, decrees or statutes from God, they could draw upon these principles and precedents to guide them in other, different but related situations that might develop. Centuries later Jesus and his apostles used the pre-Flood matters in this way. (Matt. 19:3-9; John 8:43-47; 1 Tim. 2:11-14; 1 John 3:11, 12) Law means a rule of action. By God’s words and acts they had the means for knowing something of his way, his standards, and this should be the rule of action or law for them to follow. By doing so they could ‘keep on walking with the true God.’ Those failing to do so were sinning, ‘missing the mark,’ even though there was no law code to condemn them.

Following the Flood, God stated to Noah the law, binding on all mankind, which allowed the eating of flesh but prohibited eating of blood, and stated the