and had nothing to do with the original meaning.

Mothers used various methods to transport their young children. At times the child was bundled on the back or carried on the shoulder. Jehovah through Isaiah refers to the mothers as clutching their children to their bosom, hoisting them on their shoulders, or carrying them on the flank, just above the hip. (Isa. 49:22; 66:12) Young children are still carried by Arab mothers astride the hip or shoulder. Also, Moses speaks of children as being carried in the bosom.—Num. 11:12.

Boys were mainly cared for by the mother until about five years of age. Of course, the father had the primary responsibility of teaching the Scriptures from the child’s infancy, with the mother’s assistance. (Deut. 6:7; Prov. 1:8; Eph. 6:4; 2 Tim. 3:15) As they grew older they were taught by the father and given practical training in agriculture, cultivating the fields, attending to the sheep or cattle or caring for the vineyard, or learning to perform the father’s trade if it was something different from these, such as carpentry, pottery, and so forth. Both Joseph and David were young shepherd lads.—Gen. 37:2; 1 Sam. 16:11.

Girls were under the immediate care of the mother, subject, of course, to the father’s jurisdiction. While at home they were taught the domestic arts, which would be of value to them in adult life. Rachel was a shepherdess. (Gen. 29:6-9) Young women worked with Ruth in the fields gleaning ears of grain (Ruth 2:5-9), and the Shulammite girl says that her brothers made her keeper of the vineyards.—Song of Sol. 1:6.

Young children in Israel knew the joy of relaxation and amusements. Jesus spoke of children playing in the marketplace, imitating things they had observed while watching grown-ups. (Matt. 11:16, 17) The Scriptures speak of children playing in the public squares.—Zech. 8:5.

But the well-trained Israelite youths remembered their Creator in the days of their young manhood and some even served him as ministers. Samuel as a boy was used to minister to Jehovah at the tabernacle. (1 Sam. 2:11) Jesus was very concerned with the service of his Father when he was only twelve years of age, learning all that he could by talking to the teachers in the temple. (Luke 2:41-49) A little Hebrew girl, who had implicit faith in Jehovah and his prophet Elisha, was the one responsible for directing Naaman to Elisha to be healed of leprosy. (2 Ki. 5:2, 3) At Psalm 148:12, 13 both boys and girls are commanded to praise Jehovah. Due to their training in the Bible, boys were able to cry out when they saw Jesus at the temple, saying: “Save, we pray, the Son of David!” and Jesus commended them.—Matt. 21:15, 16.

The parents were the ones responsible for the education and training of their children, they themselves being the instructors and guides, both by word and by example. The educational program was as follows: (1) Fear of Jehovah was taught. (Ps. 34:11; Prov. 9:10) (2) The child was admonished to honor his father and mother. (Ex. 20:12; Lev. 19:3; Deut. 27:16) (3) Discipline or instruction in the Law, its commandments and doctrines and education in the activities and revealed truths of Jehovah were diligently inculcated in the impressionable minds of the young offspring. (Deut. 4:5, 9; 6:7-21; Ps. 78:5) (4) Respect for older persons was stressed. (Lev. 19:32) (5) Obedience was indelibly stamped upon the youngster’s mind. (Prov. 4:1; 19:20; 23:22-25) (6) Practical training for adult living was stressed, such as learning to do things around the home, if a girl, or learning the trade of his father or some other trade, if a boy. (7) Education in reading and writing was given.

After the Babylonian exile, synagogues existed in most cities, and in later times boys were instructed by teachers there. Additionally, religious instruction was given as the parents gave heed to the divine injunction to take their children with them when going to the assemblies that were held for the purpose of worshiping and praising Jehovah. (Deut. 31:12, 13; Neh. 12:43) Jesus’ parents had taken him up to Jerusalem for the Passover. When on the return trip they missed him and found him in the temple, “sitting in the midst of the teachers and listening to them and questioning them.”—Luke 2:41-50; see EDUCATION.

If an occasion arose where a son became absolutely rebellious and incorrigible after repeated warnings and the necessary discipline, a still sterner measure was taken. The son was brought before the older men of the city, and after testimony from the parents that he was an irreformable offender, the delinquent suffered capital punishment by stoning. Such arrangement evidently had reference to a son beyond the age of what is usually considered a young child, for this one the Scriptures describe as “a glutton and a drunkard.” (Deut. 21:18-21) One striking his father or mother, or calling down evil upon his parents, was put to death. The reason for such strong measures was that the nation might clear away what was bad from their midst and so that “all Israel [would] hear and indeed become afraid.” Therefore, any tendency in the nation toward juvenile delinquency or disrespect of parental authority would be greatly retarded by the punishment inflicted upon such offenders.—Ex. 21:15, 17; Matt. 15:4; Mark 7:10.

Great disrespect was shown to God’s appointed prophet Elisha by a group of small boys who derided him, crying out: “Go up, you baldhead! Go up, you baldhead!” Either they wanted Elisha, who was wearing Elijah’s familiar garment, to go on his way up to Bethel or to get off the earth altogether by making an ascent into the heavens as Elijah had done. They did not want him around. Elisha finally turned and called down evil upon them in the name of Jehovah. “Then two she-bears came out from the woods and went tearing to pieces forty-two children of their number.”—2 Ki. 2:23, 24.

Jesus prophesied that children would rise up against their parents and parents against their children because of the stand that they would take as followers of him. (Matt. 10:21; Mark 13:12) The apostle Paul foretold that one of the major problems marking the “last days” would be children who would be disobedient to parents, and that there would be an absence of natural affection.—2 Tim. 3:1-3.

In setting forth the qualifications for overseers and ministerial servants in the Christian congregation, the apostle Paul specified that men selected for these positions were to have “believing children that were not under a charge of debauchery nor unruly,” but that they must be in subjection with all seriousness; for, says Paul, “if indeed any man does not know how to preside over his own household, how will he take care of God’s congregation?”—Titus 1:6; 1 Tim. 3:4, 5, 12.

PARENTAL AUTHORITY

The authority of the parents, particularly the father in the family, was quite broad in scope. As long as the father was alive and able to manage the household the sons were subject to him. However, if a son finally set up an independent home, then he became the head of his own household. Children could be sold into temporary bondage by a father for the payment of debts contracted. (Ex. 21:7; 2 Ki. 4:1; Matt. 18:25) The father’s authority over the daughter was such that he could annul a vow made by the daughter. However, his authority could not interfere with his daughter’s worship of Jehovah or cause failure to obey Jehovah’s commands, for the reason that the father as a member of the nation of Israel was dedicated to God and fully under God’s law. (Num. 30:3-5, 16) A widow or a divorced woman could return to her father’s house and again become his property. (Gen. 38:11) Parental authority was also manifest in marriage inasmuch as the parents selected wives for their sons or made arrangements for the marriage.—Gen. 21:21; Ex. 21:8-11; Judg. 14:1-3.

The inheritance rights came through the father. A childless wife often endeavored to acquire children from her maidservant as her husband’s concubine. Such a child was welcomed by the barren wife as her own. (Gen. 30:1-8) An illegitimate child could not be a member of the congregation of Israel. (Deut. 23:2) In the birth of twins, great care was exercised to distinguish the child that came into the world first (Gen. 38:28), since the firstborn son received two portions of his father’s inheritance, while the other son received only one portion. (Deut. 21:17; Gen. 25:1-6) Usually the older son assumed the responsibility of supporting the females in the family after his father had died. A son born through levirate marriage was raised up as the son of the dead man and inherited his property.—Deut. 25:6; Ruth 4:10, 17.

FIGURATIVE USES

The words “child” and “children” as used in the Bible have considerable latitude in meaning. The descendants of Israel are referred to as “children in the flesh,” also as “children of transgression” by Isaiah because of their rebellious ways against Jehovah. (Rom. 9:8; Isa. 57:4) In the days of the apostles wicked persons were classified as “accursed children” and “children of the Devil.” (2 Pet. 2:14; 1 John 3:10) In contrast, persons exercising faith in Christ and becoming spirit-begotten ones are called “God’s children.” (John 1:12; Rom. 8:16) Disciples are often called children.—John 13:33; Heb. 2:13.

Individuals privileged to receive a resurrection from the dead are spoken of as “children of the resurrection” (Luke 20:36); also those who are joint heirs with Christ are “the children by the promise” (Rom. 9:8) or children “of the free woman.” (Gal. 4:31) All those desiring to attain life in the kingdom of heaven must display the childlike qualities of humility, receptiveness and trust. (Matt. 18:2-4) Men and women who strive to obey God by using the light of truth in their lives are described as “obedient children” and as “children of light.”—1 Pet. 1:14; Eph. 5:8.

Paul counseled the congregation at Corinth as he would children, to “widen out” in affection; prior to this he had encouraged them not to become children in powers of understanding.—2 Cor. 6:13; 1 Cor. 14:20.

CHILDBEARING

A privilege granted exclusively to womankind by the Creator, and for which he especially designed and equipped the female. The Edenic mandate given to the first human couple and later repeated to the survivors of the Flood included conceiving and bearing children. (Gen. 1:28; 9:7) However, because of sin and disobedience, Jehovah said to Eve, in connection with childbearing: “I shall greatly increase the pain of your pregnancy; in birth pangs you will bring forth children.”—Gen. 3:16; see BIRTH; LABOR PAINS.

Concerning childbearing and motherhood, the apostle Paul recommended that younger widows, who may be greatly distracted if their motherly instincts are not satisfied, get married and bear children rather than spend their time gadding about as “gossipers and meddlers in other people’s affairs.” (1 Tim. 5:11-15) Concerning women in the Christian congregation, Paul said that they “will be kept safe through childbearing, provided they continue in faith and love and sanctification along with soundness of mind.”—1 Tim. 2:15.

CHILEAB

(Chilʹe·ab).

David’s second son born in Hebron. His mother Abigail was the former wife of Nabal. (2 Sam. 3:2, 3) Chileab is called Daniel at 1 Chronicles 3:1.—See DANIEL No. 1.

CHILION

(Chilʹi·on) [frailty].

A son of Naomi and Elimelech and the brother of Mahlon the husband of Ruth. In Moab, where the family had moved from Bethlehem, in Judah, to escape a famine that occurred in the time of the judges, Chilion, after the death of his father, married the Moabitess Orpah. Both he and his brother died childless in Moab.—Ruth 1:1-5; 4:9, 10.

CHILMAD

(Chilʹmad) [meaning uncertain].

Evidently a place listed among those trading with Tyre in the sale of fine clothing, dyed materials, carpets and ropes.—Ezek. 27:2, 23, 24.

In the phrase “Asshur and Chilmad were your traders,” the word “and” is supplied, not appearing in the Hebrew text. Because of this the version of the Jewish Publication Society prefers the rendering: “Asshur was as thine apprentice in traffic,” thereby not translating Chilmad as a proper name. Most translations, however, treat Chilmad as a place-name. Some authorities suggest an identification with Kalwadha, a city near Baghdad. The changing of an “m” for a “w” is common in Assyro-Babylonian.

CHIMHAM

(Chim’ham) [pale].

Presumably a son of Barzillai. When the aged Barzillai declined the invitation to become part of King David’s court and recommended that Chimham go in his place, David replied: “With me Chimham will go across [the Jordan], and I myself shall do to him what is good in your eyes; and all that you may choose to lay upon me I shall do for you.” (2 Sam. 19:33, 37-40) Apparently Chimham remained in the royal court, as indicated by David’s final instructions to Solomon. (1 Ki 2:7) Reference is made at Jeremiah 41:17 to the “lodging place of Chimham” near Bethlehem. It is not known whether this refers to the Chimham of David’s time or to a later man by the same name. Some commentators say that Chimham may have been given a tract of land for his services to David, or that it was a place where Chimham had built a lodging place for travelers.

CHINNERETH

(Chinʹne·reth) [perhaps, lute, harp].

1. A fortified city of Naphtali. (Josh. 19:32, 35) It is presently identified with Khirbet el-ʽOreimeh, situated on a mound about two miles (3.2 kilometers) SW of Capernaum, overlooking the NW portion of the Sea of Galilee. The name el-ʽOreimeh means “harp” or “lyre.” Chinnereth appears on the temple walls of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt, in the list of Canaanite cities conquered by Thutmose III (whose reign historians assign to the sixteenth century B.C.E.).

2. A district or region of Israel attacked by Syrian King Ben-hadad at the instigation of King Asa of Judah. (c 962/961 B.C.E.) (1 Ki. 15:20; compare 2 Chronicles 16:4.) The expression “all Chinnereth” is usually considered to refer to the fertile Plain of Gennesaret, a small, well-watered triangular area extending S of the suggested site of the city of Chinnereth.

3. The early name of the Sea of Galilee. (Num. 34:11) Associating the name with the Hebrew word for harp (kin·nohrʹ), some suggest that it is applied to the lake because of the harp-shaped form of this body of water. Gennesaret, probably the Greek form of the name, was used when Jesus was on earth (Luke 5:1), as well as the names Sea of Galilee and Sea of Tiberias.—John 6:1.

In addition to being included among the boundaries of the Promised Land (Num. 34:11), the lake formed part of the W boundary of the Amorite kingdom of Og, and, following the Israelite conquest, figured in the W boundary of the tribe of Gad. (Deut. 3:16, 17; Josh. 13:24-27) The reference to “the desert plains [Heb., ʽara·vahʹ] south of Chinnereth” (Josh. 11:2) evidently means the section of the Jordan valley S of the Sea of Galilee, known as the Ghor.—See GALILEE, SEA OF.