to please him, and thus he might not use his full strength or his full mental capacity to advance his master’s interests. (Compare Ephesians 6:5; Colossians 3:22.) Hence these other facets are evidently mentioned to focus attention on them so that we do not fail to remember and consider them in our service to God, to whom we belong, and to his Son, whose life was the ransom price that bought us. “Whole-souled” service to God involves the entire person, no bodily part, function, capacity or desire being left out.—Compare Matthew 5:28-30; Luke 21:34-36; Ephesians 6:6-9; Philippians 3:19; Colossians 3:23, 24.

SOUL AND SPIRIT ARE DISTINCT

The “spirit” (Heb., ruʹahh; Gr., pneu’ma) should not be confused with the “soul” (Heb., neʹphesh; Gr., psy·kheʹ), for they refer to different things. Thus, Hebrews 4:12 speaks of the word of God as ‘piercing even to the dividing of soul and spirit, and of joints and their marrow.’ (Compare also Philippians 1:27; 1 Thessalonians 5:23.) As has been shown, the soul (neʹphesh; psy·kheʹ) is the creature itself. The spirit (ruʹahh; pneuʹma) generally refers to the life force of the living creature or soul, though the original-language terms may also have other meanings.

Illustrating further the distinction between the Greek psy·kheʹ and pneuʹma is the apostle Paul’s discussion, in his first letter to the Corinthians, of the resurrection of Christians to spirit life. Here he contrasts “that which is physical [psy·khi·konʹ, literally “soulical”]” with “that which is spiritual [pneu·ma·ti·konʹ].” Thus, he shows that the Christians until the time of their death have had a “soulical” body, even as did the first man Adam; whereas, in their resurrection such anointed Christians receive a spiritual body like that of the glorified Jesus Christ. (1 Cor. 15:42-49) Jude makes a somewhat similar comparison in speaking of “animalistic men [psy·khi·koiʹ, literally “soulical (men)”], not having spirituality [literally “not having spirit (pneuʹma) ”].”—Jude 19.

GOD AS HAVING SOUL

In view of the foregoing, it appears that the Scriptures in which God speaks of “my soul” (Lev. 26:11, 30; Ps. 24:4; Isa. 42:1) are yet another instance of an anthropomorphic usage, that is, the attributing of physical and human characteristics to God to facilitate understanding, as when God is spoken of as having eyes, hands, and so forth. By speaking of ‘my neʹphesh,’ Jehovah clearly means “myself” or “my person” “God is a Spirit [Pneuʹma].”—John 4:24; see JEHOVAH (Descriptions of his presence), page 889.

SOUR DOUGH

A piece of dough that is set aside for a day or longer and allowed to sour or ferment. The Hebrew term s^eʼorʹ denotes such sour dough and means “fermented” or “leavened mass.” Certain lexicographers have linked it with the German word sauer and the English word sour. Sour dough would readily leaven new mixtures to which it is added.

The Israelites used sour dough in making leavened bread. The lump of dough preserved from a former baking was generally dissolved in water in the kneading trough prior to the adding of the flour, or it might be put in the flour and then kneaded along with it. The latter seems to be the method referred to by Jesus Christ when he said: “The kingdom of the heavens is like leaven, which a woman took and hid in three large measures of flour, until the whole mass was fermented.” (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:20, 21) Though there is no direct evidence, it has been suggested that the Jews also used wine lees as yeast.

Israel’s grain offerings presented by fire to Jehovah were not to be made with sour dough. (Lev. 2:11) Also, the Israelites were expressly commanded not to have sour dough (here an apparent symbol of corruption and sin) in their homes or within the boundaries of their territory during the seven-day festival of unleavened bread. (Ex. 12:15; 13:7; Deut. 16:4) Anyone eating something leavened during that time was to be “cut off from the assembly of Israel.”—Ex. 12:19.

In ancient Egypt it was also customary, when baking, to set aside some dough, to be used for leavening fresh dough. Even today, when the kneading of dough has been completed, some people of Cyprus, for instance, put aside a piece of dough in a warm place. After thirty-six to forty-eight hours it can be used to ferment an entire lump of new dough.

Paul may have had sour dough in mind when he urged the Corinthians: “Clear away the old leaven [Gr., zyʹmen], that you may be a new lump, according as you are free from ferment.”—1 Cor. 5:7; see LEAVEN.

SOUTH

See NEGEB.

SOVEREIGNTY

Supremacy in rule or power; the dominion or rule of a lord, king, emperor or the like; the power that, in the final analysis, determines the government of a state. In the Hebrew Scriptures the word ʼAdho·nayʹ appears frequently, and the expression ʼAdho·nayʹ Y^eho·wihʹ more than two hundred times. ʼAdho·nayʹ is a plural form of ʼa·dhohnʹ, “lord” “master.” The plural form ʼadho·nimʹ may be applied to men in simple plurality, as “lords,” “masters.” But the term ʼAdho·nayʹ is always used in the Scriptures with reference to God, the plural being employed to denote excellence or majesty. It is most frequently rendered “Lord” by translators. When it appears with the name of God (ʼAdho·nayʹ Y^eho·wihʹ), as, for example, at Psalm 73:28, the expression is translated “Lord GOD” (AT, AV, RS); “Lord God” (Dy [72:28]); “Lord, my Master” (Kx [72:28]); “Lord Jehovah” (Yg); “Sovereign Lord Jehovah” (NW). In Psalms 47:9; 138:5 and 150:2 Moffatt uses the word “sovereign,” but not to translate ʼAdho·nayʹ.

The Greek word de·spoʹtes means one who possesses supreme authority, or absolute ownership and uncontrolled power. (Vine’s Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, under “Lord” and “Master”) It is translated “lord,” “master,” “owner,” and when used in direct address to God is rendered “Lord” (AV, Yg and others), “Ruler of all” (Kx), “Sovereign Lord” (NW), at Luke 2:29, Acts 4:24 and Revelation 6:10. In the last text, Knox, the New English Bible, Moffatt and the Revised Standard Version read “Sovereign Lord”; Young’s translation and The Kingdom Interlinear Translation read “master.”

So, while the Hebrew and Greek texts do not have a separate qualifying word for “sovereign,” the flavor is contained in the words ʼAdho·nayʹ and de·spoʹtes when they are used in the Scriptures as applying to Jehovah God, the qualification denoting the excellence of his lordship.

JEHOVAH’S SOVEREIGNTY

Jehovah God is Sovereign of the universe (“sovereign of the world,” Psalm 47:9, Mo) by reason of his Creatorship, his Godship and his supremacy as the Almighty. (Gen. 17:1; Ex. 6:3; Rev. 16:14) He is the Owner of all things and the Source of all authority and power, the Supreme Ruler in government. (Ps. 24:1; Isa. 40:21-23; Rev. 4:11; 11:15) The psalmist sang of him: “Jehovah himself has firmly established his throne in the very heavens; and over everything his own kingship has held domination.” (Ps. 103:19; 145:13) Jesus’ disciples prayed, addressing God: “Sovereign Lord, you are the One who made the heaven and the earth.” (Acts 4:24, NW; Mo) To the nation of Israel, God himself constituted all three branches of government, the judicial, the legislative and the executive. The prophet Isaiah said: “Jehovah is our Judge, Jehovah is our Statute-giver, Jehovah is our King; he himself will save us.” (Isa. 33:22) Moses gives a notable description of God as Sovereign at Deuteronomy 10:17.

In his sovereign position Jehovah has the right and authority to delegate ruling responsibilities. David was made king of Israel, and the Scriptures speak of ‘the kingdom of David’ as though it was his kingdom. But David acknowledged Jehovah as the great Sovereign Ruler, saying: “Yours, O Jehovah, are the greatness and the mightiness and the beauty and the excellency and the dignity; for everything in the heavens and in the earth is yours. Yours is the kingdom, O Jehovah, the One also lifting yourself up as head over all.”—1 Chron. 29:11.

EARTHLY RULERS

The rulers of the nations of earth exercise their limited rulership by tolerance or permission of the Sovereign Lord Jehovah. That the political governments do not receive their authority from God, that is, that they are not acting by reason of any grant of authority or power from him, is shown at Revelation 13:1, 2, where the seven-headed, ten-horned wild beast is said to get “its power and its throne and great authority” from the dragon, Satan the Devil.—Rev. 12:9; see BEASTS, SYMBOLIC.

So, while God has allowed various rulerships of men to come and go, one of their mighty kings, after having had demonstrated, in his own experience, the fact of Jehovah’s sovereignty, was moved to say: “His rulership is a rulership to time indefinite and his kingdom is for generation after generation. And all the inhabitants of the earth are being considered as merely nothing, and he is doing according to his own will among the army of the heavens and the inhabitants of the earth. And there exists no one that can check his hand or that can say to him, ‘What have you been doing?’”—Dan. 4:34, 35.

Accordingly, as long as it is God’s will to permit man-made governments to rule, the apostle Paul’s injunction to Christians will apply: “Let every soul be in subjection to the superior authorities, for there is no authority except by God; the existing authorities stand placed in their relative positions by God.” The apostle then goes on to point out that when such governments act to punish one who does what is bad, the ‘superior authority’ or ruler (even though not a faithful worshiper of God) is acting indirectly as a minister of God in this particular capacity, expressing wrath upon the one practicing what is bad.—Rom. 13:1-6.

As to such authorities being “placed in their relative positions by God,” the Scriptures indicate that this does not mean that God formed these governments or backs them up. Rather, he has maneuvered them to suit his good purpose, with relation to his will concerning his servants in the earth. Moses said: “When the Most High gave the nations an inheritance, when he parted the sons of Adam from one another, he proceeded to fix the boundary of the peoples with regard for the number of the sons of Israel.” (Deut. 32:8) Echoing this view of matters, the apostle Paul, in a speech delivered on the Areopagus at Athens, said: “And he made out of one man every nation of men, to dwell upon the entire surface of the earth, and he decreed the appointed seasons and the set limits of the dwelling of men.”—Acts 17:26.

THE KINGDOM OF GOD’S SON

Following the overthrow of the last king to sit on “Jehovah’s throne” in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 29:23), the prophet Daniel was given a vision describing the future appointment of God’s own Son to serve as King. Jehovah’s position stands out clearly when he, as the Ancient of Days, grants rulership to his Son. The account states: “I kept on beholding in the visions of the night, and, see there! with the clouds of the heavens someone like a son of man happened to be coming; and to the Ancient of Days he gained access, and they brought him up close even before that One. And to him there were given rulership and dignity and kingdom, that the peoples, national groups and languages should all serve even him. His rulership is an indefinitely lasting rulership that will not pass away, and his kingdom one that will not be brought to ruin.” (Dan. 7:13, 14) A comparison of this text with Matthew 26:63, 64 leaves no doubt that the “son of man” in Daniel’s vision is Jesus Christ. He gains access to Jehovah’s presence and is given rulership.—Compare Psalm 2:8, 9; Matthew 28:18.

JEHOVAH’S SOVEREIGNTY CHALLENGED

For nearly all the 6,000 years that Bible chronology indicates man has been on the earth, wickedness has been in existence. All mankind have been dying, and sins and transgressions against God have multiplied. (Rom. 5:12, 15, 16) Since the Bible indicates that God gave man a perfect start, the questions have arisen, How did sin, imperfection and wickedness get their start? and why has the Almighty God allowed these things to remain for centuries? The answers lie in a challenge against God’s sovereignty that brought forth a paramount issue involving mankind.

What God wants in those who serve him

Jehovah God, by his words and acts, has, over the centuries, proved that he is a God of love and undeserved kindness, exercising perfect justice and judgment, and extending mercy to those seeking to serve him. (Ex. 34:6, 7; Ps. 89:14; see MERCY; RIGHTEOUSNESS.) Even to the ungrateful and wicked he has expressed kindness. (Matt. 5:45; Luke 6:35; Rom. 5:8) He delights in the fact that his sovereignty is administered in love.—Jer. 9:24.

Accordingly, the kind of persons he desires in his universe are persons who serve him because of love for him and for his fine qualities. They must love first God and, second, their neighbor. (Matt. 22:37-39) They must love Jehovah’s sovereignty; they must desire it and prefer it over any other. (Ps. 84:10) They must be persons that, even if it were possible for them to become independent, would choose His sovereignty because they know that his rulership is far wiser, more righteous and better than any other. (Isa. 55:8-11; Jer. 10:23; Rom. 7:18) Such persons serve God, not merely because of fear of his almightiness nor for selfish reasons, but out of love of His righteousness, justice and wisdom and because of having the knowledge of Jehovah’s greatness and loving-kindness. (Ps. 97:10; 119:104, 128, 163) They exclaim with the apostle Paul: “O the depth of God’s riches and wisdom and knowledge! How unsearchable his judgments are and past tracing out his ways are! For ‘who has come to know Jehovah’s mind, or who has become his counselor?’ Or, ‘Who has first given to him, so that it must be repaid to him?’ Because from him and by him and for him are all things. To him be the glory forever. Amen.”—Rom. 11:33-36.

Such ones come to know God, and really knowing him means to love him and stick to his sovereignty. The apostle John writes: “Everyone remaining in union with him does not practice sin; no one that practices sin has either seen him or come to know him.” And, “He that does not love has not come to know God, because God is love.” (1 John 3:6; 4:8) Jesus knew his Father better than anyone else. He said: “All things have been delivered to me by my Father, and no one fully knows the Son but the Father, neither does anyone fully know the Father but the Son and anyone to whom the Son is willing to reveal him.”—Matt. 11:27.

A failure to develop love and appreciation

Consequently, when the challenge was hurled against Jehovah’s sovereignty, it came from one who, although enjoying the benefits of God’s sovereignty, did not appreciate and develop the knowledge of God and thereby deepen his love for him. This one was a spirit creature of God, an angel. When the human pair Adam and Eve were put on earth, this one saw an opportunity to set out on an attack on God’s sovereignty. First, he would make an attempt (which proved successful) to turn Eve, then Adam, away from subjection to God’s sovereignty. He hoped to establish a rival sovereignty.

As for Eve, the person approached first, she certainly had not appreciated her Creator and God and taken advantage of her opportunity to know him. She listened to the voice of an inferior, ostensibly the serpent, actually the rebellious angel. The Bible does not allude to any surprise on her part at hearing the serpent talk. It does say that the serpent was “the most cautious of all the wild beasts of the field that Jehovah God had made.” (Gen. 3:1) Whether it ate of the forbidden fruit of “the tree of the knowledge of good and bad” and then appeared to be made wise, able to speak, is not stated. The rebellious angel, using the serpent to speak to her, presented (as she supposed) the opportunity to become independent, “to be like God, knowing good and bad,” and succeeded in convincing her that she would not die.—Gen. 2:17; 3:4, 5; 2 Cor. 11:3.

Adam, who also showed no appreciation and love for his Creator and Provider when faced with rebellion in his household, and who showed no loyalty to stand up for his God when put to the test, succumbed to Eve’s persuasiveness. He evidently lost faith in God and His ability to provide for His loyal servant all good things. (Compare what Jehovah said to David after his sin with Bath-sheba, at 2 Samuel 12:7-9.) Adam also seemed to be taking offense against Jehovah, as indicated by his reply when questioned as to his wrong act: “The woman whom you gave to be with me, she gave me fruit from the tree and so I ate it.” (Gen. 3:12) He did not believe the serpent’s lie that he would not die, as Eve had, but both Adam and Eve deliberately went in a course of self-determination, rebellion against God.—1 Tim. 2:14.

Adam could not say, “I am being tried by God.” Rather, at this point the principle began to go into operation: “Each one is tried by being drawn out and enticed by his own desire. Then the desire, when it has become fertile, gives birth to sin; in turn, sin, when it has been accomplished, brings forth death.” (Jas. 1:13-15) Thus, the three rebels, the angel, Eve and Adam, used the freedom of will with which God had endowed them, to turn from sinless-ness to a course of willful sin.—See PERFECTION; SIN, I.

The point at issue

What was here challenged? Who was reproached and defamed by this challenge of the angel who was later called Satan the Devil, which challenge Adam supported by his rebellious act? Was it the fact of Jehovah’s supremacy, the existence of his sovereignty? Was God’s sovereignty in danger? No, for Jehovah has supreme authority and power, and no one in heaven and earth can take this out of his hand. (Rom. 9:19) The challenge therefore must have been of the rightfulness, the deservedness and righteousness of God’s sovereignty—whether his sovereignty was exercised in a worthy way, righteously and for the best interests of his subjects or not. An indication of this is the approach to Eve: “Is it really so that God said you must not eat from every tree of the garden?” Here the serpent intimated that such a thing was unbelievable—that God was unduly restrictive, withholding something that was the rightful due of the human pair.—Gen. 3:1.

The tree of the knowledge of good and bad

By taking of the fruit of the “tree of the knowledge of good and bad” Adam and Eve expressed their rebellion. The Creator, as Universal Sovereign, was acting wholly within his right in making the law regarding the tree, for Adam, being a created person and not sovereign, had limitations, and needed to acknowledge this fact. For universal peace and harmony, it would devolve upon all reasoning creatures to acknowledge and support the Creator’s sovereignty. Adam would demonstrate his recognition of this fact by refraining from eating the fruit of that tree. As father-to-be of an earth full of people, he must prove obedient and loyal, even in the smallest thing. The principle involved was: “The person faithful in what is least is faithful also in much, and the person unrighteous in what is least is unrighteous also in much.” (Luke 16:10) Adam had the capability for such perfect obedience. There was evidently nothing bad intrinsically in the fruit of the tree itself. (The thing forbidden was not sex relations, for God had commanded the pair to “fill the earth.” [Gen. 1:28] It was an actual tree, as the Bible says.) What was represented by the tree is well expressed in a footnote on Genesis 2:17, in The Jerusalem Bible (1966):

“This knowledge is a privilege which God reserves to himself and which man, by sinning, is to lay hands on, 3:5, 22. Hence it does not mean omniscience, which fallen man does not possess; nor is it moral discrimination, for unfallen man already had it and God could not refuse it to a rational being. It is the power of deciding for himself what is good and what is evil and of acting accordingly, a claim to complete moral independence by which man refuses to recognise his status as a created being. The first sin was an attack on God’s sovereignty, a sin of pride.”

God’s servants charged with selfishness

A further expression of the issue is found in Satan’s statement to God about his faithful servant Job. Satan said: “Is it for nothing that Job has feared God? Have not you yourself put up a hedge about him and about his house and about everything that he has all around? The work of his hands you have blessed, and his livestock itself has spread abroad in the earth. But, for a change, thrust out your hand, please, and touch everything he has and see whether he will not curse you to your very face.” Again, he charged: “Skin in behalf of skin, and everything that a man has he will give in behalf of his soul.” (Job 1:9-11; 2:4) Satan therewith charged Job with being not in harmony with God at heart, as serving God obediently only because of selfish considerations, for gain. Satan thereby slandered God as to his sovereignty, and God’s servants as to integrity to that sovereignty. He said, in effect, that no man could be put on earth that would maintain integrity to Jehovah’s sovereignty if he, Satan, was allowed to put him to the test.

Jehovah permitted the issue to be joined. Not, however, because he was unsure of the righteousness of his own sovereignty. He needed nothing proved to himself. It was out of love for his intelligent creatures that he allowed time for the testing out of the matter. He permitted men to undergo a test under Satan, before all the universe. And he gave his creatures the privilege of proving the Devil a liar, and of removing the slander, not only from God’s name, but also from their own. Satan, in his egotistic attitude, was ‘given up to a disapproved mental state.’ In his approach to Eve he had evidently been contradictory in his own reasoning. (Rom. 1:28) For he was charging God with unfair, unrighteous exercise of sovereignty, and at the same time was evidently counting on God’s fairness: he seemed to think that God would consider Himself obliged to let him live on if he proved his charge concerning the unfaithfulness of God’s creatures.

Settlement of the issue a vital need

The settling of the issue was actually a matter vital to all who live, as respects their relationship to God’s sovereignty. For, once settled, such issue would never need to be tried again. It seems apparent that Jehovah desired that full knowledge of all the questions