Kyunifomu Yakale na Baibolo
CIYOWOYERO cikati catimbanizgika pa Babele, ŵanthu ŵakambiska nthowa zinandi za kalembero. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu Mesopotamiya, nga ni Ŵasumeriya na Ŵababulone, kalembero kawo kakacemekanga kyunifomu. Lizgu ili ndakufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini ilo likung’anamura vinthu vyakujambulika na phesulu, ndiposo vyakudindika pa dongo liŵisi.
Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda vinthu ivyo vikawundilika pasi ŵali kusanga madongo ghapapati apo pali kulembeka kalembero ka kyunifomu, ako kakuzunulika mu Baibolo. Kasi tikumanyapo vici vyakukhwaskana na kalembero aka? Ndipo kakukhozgera wuli Baibolo kuti ndaunenesko?
Maukaboni Agho Ghaŵako kwa Nyengo Yitali
Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakusambira comene ŵakugomezga kuti kalembero ka kyunifomu ka ku Mesopotamiya kakalembekanga mwa kujambura vithuzithuzi, ndipo cithuzi cilicose cikaŵa na ng’anamuro panji cikimiranga lizgu. Mwaciyelezgero, mutu wa ng’ombe ukimiranga ng’ombe. Cifukwa ca kuwona kuzirwa kwa kusunga vinthu ivi, nthowa ya kalembero ya kyunifomu yikambika. Nga umo ŵakulongosolera ŵa NIV Archaeological Study Bible, “pa nyengo iyi vimanyikwiro vikimiranga mazgu kweniso masilabulo, ndipo para ŵavisazga pamoza vikapanganga mazgu ghakupulikikwa makora.” Mukuluta kwa nyengo vithuzithuzi vyakukwana 200 vikawovwira kuti kalembero ka kyunifomu “kaŵe ciyowoyero, ndipo ciyowoyero ici cikawa na malango ghake gha kalembero.”
Kuzakafika mu nyengo ya Abrahamu, ca m’ma 2,000 B.C.E., ciyowoyero ca kyunifomu cikaŵa cakumanyikwa makora. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 2,000, viyowoyero vinyake 15 vikalondezganga kalembero aka. Vinandi ivyo vili kusangika vyakukhwaskana na kalembero aka vikulongora kuti kakalembekanga pa vipapati vya dongo. Ndipo vipapati ivi vikasangika ku Ur, Uruk, Babulone, Nimrud, Nippur, Ashur, Nineve, Mari, Ebla, Ugarit, na Amarna vilimika 150 ivyo vyajumpha. Magazini ya Archaeology Odyssey yikati: “Ŵakufukura pasi ŵakugomezga kuti vipapati pafupifupi 2 miliyoni vya kalembero aka vyafukulika, ndipo cilimika cilicose pakusangika vinyake 25,000 panji kujumpha apa.”
Pa caru cose, ŵanthu awo ŵali kusambira za kyunifomu, ŵali na nchito yikuru comene ya kung’anamulira kalembero aka. Pakughanaghanirika kuti pa vipapati 100 vilivyose, “10 pera ndivyo vili kuŵazgikapo.”
Cifukwa ca kumanya nthowa ziŵiri panji zitatu za kalembero ka kyunifomu, ŵakawovwirika kumanya makora ciyowoyero ici. Awo ŵali kusambira za kalembero aka, ŵakawona kuti vipapati ivyo ŵakasanga vikaŵa na fundo zakuyana, nangauli vikalembeka mu nthowa zakupambana za kyunifomu. Kumanya mazina, mikoka ya mathemba, ndiposo mazgu gha kujilumba agho ghakalembeka mwakuwerezgawerezga kukawovwira kuti ŵapulikiske.
Kufika m’ma 1850, ŵanthu ŵakusambira comene ŵakamanyanga kuŵazga ciyowoyero ca kyunifomu ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ku vyaru vya ŵalungwana (Middle East), Akkadian, panji Ŵababulone ŵakayowoyanga. Buku la Encyclopædia Britannica likulongosora kuti: “Kumanya ciyowoyero ca Akkadian, kukawovwiranga kumanya ng’anamuro la ivyo vikalembeka pa vipapati vya viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikalembeka mu kyunifomu.” Kasi kalembero aka kakukolerana wuli na Baibolo?
Ivyo Vikukolerana na Baibolo
Baibolo likulongosora kuti Yerusalemu wakaŵa pasi pa mathemba gha Kenani mpaka apo Davide wakapoka mzinda uwu ca m’ma 1070 B.C.E. (Josh. 10:1; 2 Sam. 5:4-9) Kweni ŵanji ŵakakayikiranga fundo iyi. Ndipouli, mu 1887, mwanakazi munyake wakasanga cipapati ca dongo ku Amarna, ku Eguputo. Cipapati ici cikati cang’anamurika, ŵakasanga kuti ghakaŵa makalata agho mathemba gha Eguputo na Kenani (Amenhotep III na Akhenaton) ghakalemberananga. Makalata ghankhondi na yimoza ghakaŵa ghakufuma kwa Abdi-Heba, themba la Yerusalemu.
Magazini ya Biblical Archaeology Review yikuti: “Ivyo vikalembeka pa vipapati vya Amarna vikulongora kuti Yerusalemu ukaŵa msumba. Ndipo vikulongoraso kuti Abdi-Heba wakaŵa kazembe, uyo wakaŵa na nyumba ndiposo ŵasilikari 50. Vyose ivi vikulongora kuti Yerusalemu ukaŵa uthemba.” Magazini yeneyiyi yikatiso: “Kwizira mu ivyo vili kulembeka pa vipapati vya Amarna, tili na cigomezgo kuti msumba uwu, uwo ukaŵa wakuzirwa, ukaŵako nadi.”
Mazina gha Ŵaasiriya na Ŵababulone
Ŵaasiriya ndiposo Ŵababulone ŵakalembanga midauko yawo pa vipapati vya dongo, vimphani na vinyake vyantheura. Ŵanthu ŵakusambira comene ŵakati ŵapulikiska kyunifomu ya Akkadian, ŵakasanga kuti pa vipapati ivi pali mazina gha ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoyeka mu Baibolo.
Buku lakuti The Bible in the British Museum, likuti: “Mu 1970 apo wakayowoyanga ku wupu wupya wa Society of Biblical Archaeology, Dr Samuel Birch wakati, iyo wakasanga [mu kyunifomu, mazina gha] mathemba gha Ŵahebere nga ni Omri, Ahabu, Jehu, Azariya . . . , Menahem, Peka, Hosheya, Hezekiya na Manase, ndiposo mathemba gha Ŵaasiriya, Tiglat-Pileser. . . [III] Sargon, Senakeribu, Esarhadon na Ashurbanipal, . . . ndiposo Hazayeli na Rezin, mathemba gha Siriya.”
Buku la The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating likuyaniska mdauko wa Ŵaisrayeli ndiposo wa Ŵayuda na kalembero ka kyunifomu ka mu nyengo zakale. Ndipo ni vici ivyo vikacitika pamasinda pake? “Mathemba 15 panji 16 gha Yuda na Israyeli ghakamanyikwanga mu vyaru vinyake pa nyengo iyo, ndipo mazina ghawo ndiposo nyengo izo ŵakaŵako vikukolerana na ivyo vili kulembeka [mu Baibolo] mu buku la Mathemba. Wose awo ŵakuzunulika mu vyakulembeka vinyake, ŵali kulembeka kale mu Baibolo, mu buku la Mathemba.”
Pa cipapati cakumanyikwa comene ca Cyrus Cylinder, ico cikasangika mu 1879 pali kulembeka kuti, pamanyuma pakuti Cyrus wapoka Babulone mu 539 B.C.E., wakafwatura ŵazga wose mwakuti ŵalutenge ku kwawo. Ŵanji awo ŵakapika mwaŵi uwu ŵakaŵa Ŵayuda. (Ezra 1:1-4) Ŵanthu ŵakusambira ŵanandi ŵa m’ma 1900 ŵakakayikiranga ivyo vili kulembeka mu Baibolo vyakukhwaskana na Cyrus. Ndipouli, vyakulembeka vya kyunifomu vya mu nyengo iyo caru ca Persia cikaŵa ca nkhongono comene, ndiposo vya Cyrus Cylinder vili na ukaboni wambura kususkika wakuti ivyo vili kulembeka mu Baibolo ni vyaunenesko.
Mu cilimika ca 1883 vipapati vya kyunifomu vyakujumpha 700 vikasangika ku Nippur, kufupi na Babulone. Pa mazina 2,500 agho ghakalembeka pa vipapati ivi, pafupifupi 70 ghakaŵa gha Ciyuda. Munthu munyake wakusanda mdauko Edwin Yamauchi wakati, “ghakuwoneka kuti ghakaŵa mazina gha ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka nchito, ŵimiliri ŵa ŵeneko nchito, ŵakaboni, ŵamsonkho, na ŵimiliri ŵa mathemba.” Ukaboni wakuti Ŵayuda ŵakalutilira kucita vinthu mwakuyana na Ŵababulone mu nyengo iyi ukuwonekerathu. Vikukoleranaso na ucimi wa mu Baibolo wakuti, apo Ŵaisrayeli “ŵakukhalako” ŵakafuma ku wuzga ku Asiriya na Babulone na kuwelera ku kwawo ku Yudeya, ŵanandi ŵakawelera yayi.—Yes. 10:21, 22.
Ca m’ma 1000 B.C.E., kukaŵa kalembero ka kyunifomu kweniso ka alufabeti. Kweni mukuluta kwa nyengo Ŵaasiriya na Ŵababulone ŵakaleka kugwiliskira nchito kyunifomu na kwamba kulemba mwakulondezga alufabeti.
Pali vipapati vinandi vyambura kusandika ivyo vikusungika mu nyumba zakusungiramo vinthu vyakale za miziyamu. Ivyo vyasandika kale vili na ukaboni wambura kususkika wakuti Baibolo ndaunenesko. Tingasanga ukaboni wakusazgikira wakuti Baibolo ndaunenesko usange vipapati ivyo vicali vindasandike vingasandika.
[Kulongosora Cithuzithuzi pa peji 21]
Photograph taken by courtesy of the British Museum