Sayansi Yamakono ya Zamankhwala—Kodi Ingafike Pati?

M’MAYIKO mmene muli mitengo ya apulo, ana ambiri amaphunzira akali aang’ono kuti ngati akufuna kuthyola chipatso chomwe sangachifikire mumtengo wautali wa apulo, angachithyole ngati atakwera pamapewa a mnzawo. Pankhani ya zamankhwala, pachitikanso zofanana ndi zimenezi. Ofufuza zamankhwala apambana kwambiri mwa kuima pamapewa, titero kunena kwake, a akatswiri a zamakhwala otchuka akale.

Ena mwa asing’anga akale amenewo anali amuna odziŵika bwino monga Hippocrates ndi Pasteur, pamodzi ndi amuna ena monga Vesalius ndi William Morton—mayina amene ambiri sakuwadziŵa. Kodi anthu ameneŵa anathandiza motani kuti sayansi yamakono ya zamankhwala ipambane?

Kale anthu sankachiritsa pogwiritsa ntchito njira za sayansi, m’malo mwake amakhulupirira malodza ndi miyambo yachipembedzo. Buku lakuti The Epic of Medicine, lokonzedwa ndi Dr. Felix Marti-Ibañez limati: “Polimbana ndi matenda .  .  .,  Amesopotamiya amaphatikiza mankhwala ndi chipembedzo, popeza amakhulupirira kuti matenda anali chilango chochokera kwa milungu.” Mankhwala a ku Igupto, obwera pambuyo pake, anazikidwanso pachipembedzo. Choncho, kuyambira pachiyambi, sing’anga amamuona ndi kum’lemekeza monga munthu waumulungu.

M’buku lake lakuti The Clay Pedestal, Dr. Thomas A. Preston akuti: “Zikhulupiriro zambiri za anthu akale zikupezekabe m’zamankhwala lerolino. Chimodzi mwa zikhulupiriro zimenezo chinali chakuti wodwala sangachire pokhapokha sing’anga atachita matsenga ake.”

Kuika Maziko

Komabe, m’kupita kwa nthaŵi, anthu anayamba kuchiritsa matenda mwa njira za sayansi. Amene anali wotchuka kwambiri kalelo pogwiritsa ntchito njirayi anali Hippocrates. Anabadwa cha ku ma 460 B.C.E. pachilumba cha Kos ku Girisi ndipo ambiri akukhulupirira kuti ndi amene anayambitsa sayansi ya zamankhwala ya Azungu. Hippocrates anayambitsa njira zomveka zogwiritsa ntchito pa zamankhwala. Anatsutsa chikhulupiriro chakuti nthenda inali chilango chochokera kwa mulungu, ndipo anapereka umboni wakuti ndi yachibadwa. Mwachitsanzo, kwa nthaŵi yaitali anthu amati khunyu ndi nthenda yopatulika chifukwa amakhulupirira kuti milungu yokha ndi imene inkachiritsa nthendayi. Koma Hippocrates analemba kuti: “Nthendayi imene akuti Yopatulika: si zoona kuti imachokera kwa mulungu ndipo si yopatulika kusiyana ndi matenda ena, m’malo mwake ndi yachibadwa.” Hippocrates analinso dokotala woyamba kupenda zizindikiro za matenda osiyanasiyana n’kuzilemba kuti adzagwiritse ntchito m’tsogolo.

Patapita zaka mazana angapo, Galen, dokotala wachigiriki yemwe anabadwa m’chaka cha 129 C.E., anachitanso kafukufuku watsopano wa sayansi. Atang’amba matupi a anthu ndi nyama, Galen analemba buku lofotokoza mapangidwe a matupi a zamoyo. Madokotala analigwiritsa ntchito bukuli kwa zaka mazana ambiri. Andreas Vesalius yemwe anabadwa m’chaka cha 1514 ku Brussels analemba buku lakuti On the Structure of the Human Body. Anthu analitsutsa bukuli chifukwa linali ndi mfundo zotsutsana ndi za Galen. Komabe linaika maziko a sayansi yamakono ya mapangidwe a matupi a zamoyo. Malinga ndi buku lakuti Die Grossen (Anthu Otchuka), mwa kuchita zimenezi Vesalius anakhala “mmodzi wa anthu ofunika kwambiri ofufuza zamankhwala amene analibe ena ofanana nawo.”

Choncho, m’kupita kwa nthaŵi ziphunzitso za Galen zonena za mtima ndi kuzungulira kwa magazi m’thupi lonse zinatha ntchito.a Dokotala wachingelezi dzina lake William Harvey anang’amba matupi a nyama ndi mbalame kwa zaka zambiri. Anapenda ntchito ya mavalavu a mtima, nayesa kuchuluka kwa magazi m’chigawo chilichonse cha mtima ndipo anayerekeza kuchuluka kwa magazi m’thupi lonse. Mu 1628 Harvey anasindikiza zimene anapeza m’buku lakuti On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals. Anthu anam’suliza, kum’tsutsa, kumuukira, ndi kum’chitira chipongwe. Komabe, kafukufuku wakeyo anali posinthira zinthu m’sayansi ya zamankhwala—anatulukira mmene magazi amazungulirira m’thupi lonse!

Kuyamba ndi Kumeta Kenako Opaleshoni

Anthu anali kupitanso patsogolo pa ntchito ya opaleshoni. M’zaka za m’ma 500 mpaka m’ma 1500, ometa tsitsi ankachitanso opaleshoni. N’zosadabwitsa kuti ena akuti Ambroise Paré, Mfalansa wometa tsitsi wa m’zaka za zana la 16, ndi amene anayambitsa opaleshoni yamakono. Anali dokotala wa opaleshoni woyamba amene anatumikira mafumu anayi a ku France. Paré anapanganso ziwiya zingapo zochitira opaleshoni.

Limodzi mwa mavuto aakulu amene dokotala wa opaleshoni amakumana nawo m’zaka za zana la 19 linali lakuti amalephera kuthetsa ululu wa opaleshoni. Koma mu 1846 dokotala wa opaleshoni ya mano dzina lake William Morton anayambitsa njira zogwiritsa ntchito mankhwala oletsa kumva ululu pochita opaleshoni.b

Akuyesera magetsi mu 1895, katswiri wa sayansi ya chilengedwe wa ku Germany, Wilhelm Röntgen anaona cheza chikudutsa kupyola minofu koma osapyola fupa. Sanadziŵe kumene chezacho chinachokera, motero anachipatsa dzina lakuti cheza cha X, dzina limene akuligwiritsa ntchito m’Chingelezi mpaka pano. (M’Chijeremani amati Röntgenstrahlen.) Malinga ndi buku lakuti Die Großen Deutschen (Ajeremani Otchuka) Röntgen anauza mkazi wake kuti: “Anthu adzanena kuti: ‘Röntgen wapenga.’ ” Ena anaterodi. Komabe zimene anapeza zinayambitsa njira zatsopano za opaleshoni. Madokotala a opaleshoni akanatha kuona m’kati mwa thupi popanda kuling’amba.

Kugonjetsa Matenda

Kwa zaka zambiri matenda oyambukira monga nthomba ankayambitsa miliri, mantha aakulu, ndiponso imfa. Ar-Rāzī, Mperisiya wa m’zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chinayi amene ena akuti anali dokotala wotchuka kwambiri wachisilamu panthaŵiyo, analemba ndondomeko yolondola yoyamba ya matenda a nthomba. Koma panapita zaka mazana angapo pamene dokotala wa ku Britain dzina lake Edward Jenner anapeza njira zochiritsira nthendayi. Jenner anapeza kuti ngati munthu anali ndi nthenda ya cowpox—yosapha—sankagwidwa ndi nthomba. Malinga ndi zimene anapezazi, Jenner anagwiritsa ntchito mafinya otuluka pa zilonda za ogwidwa ndi cowpox kupanga katemera wa nthomba. Anachita zimenezo m’chaka cha 1796. Anthu anam’nyoza ndi kum’tsutsa Jenner monga momwe anawachitira ena amene anatulukira njira zatsopano iye asanakhaleko. Koma m’kupita kwa nthaŵi katemera amene anatulukirayu anathetsa nthendayo ndipo anali chida chatsopano champhamvu cholimbana ndi matenda.

Mfalansa wina dzina lake Louis Pasteur anagwiritsa ntchito katemera polimbana ndi matenda a chiwewe ndi anthrax. Anapezanso umboni wakuti mokulira matenda amayamba ndi majeremusi. Mu 1882, Robert Koch anapeza kachilombo kamene kamayambitsa chifuwa cha TB, chimene wolemba mbiri wina anati inali “nthenda yakupha koposa ya m’zaka za zana la 19.” Patapita pafupifupi chaka chimodzi, Koch anapeza kachilombo kamene kamayambitsa kolera. Magazini ya Life ikuti: “Zimene Pasteur ndi Koch anatulukira zinayambitsa sayansi yofufuza tamoyo tosaoneka ndi maso ndipo zinalimbikitsa sayansi yoona za mphamvu ya thupi yodziteteza ku matenda, ndi ukhondo. Zimenezi zathandiza kwambiri kutalikitsa moyo wa munthu kuposa kutukuka kwa sayansi pa zaka 1,000 zapitazo.”

Sayansi ya Zamankhwala M’zaka za ma 1900

Kuchiyambiyambi kwa zaka za ma 1900, asayansi ya zamankhwala anaima pamapewa, titero kunena kwake, a madokotala a luso ameneŵa ndi ena. Kuyambira pamenepo, ntchito ya zamankhwala yapita patsogolo mofulumira kwambiri. Mwachitsanzo, apanga mankhwala a nthenda ya shuga, mankhwala a kansa, chithandizo cha mahomoni kulimbana ndi matenda a anabere, mankhwala a chifuwa cha TB, kulolokwini kuthetsa mitundu ina ya malungo, makina ogwira ntchito ngati impso othandiza pa matenda a impso, opaleshoni ya mtima, ndi kuchotsa ndi kuika ziwalo m’thupi, kungotchula zochepa chabe.

Koma popeza tsono tili kuchiyambi kwa zaka za ma 2000, kodi sayansi ya zamankhwala ili pafupi kukwaniritsa zolinga zake zopezera “anthu onse padziko lapansi thanzi labwino”?

Kodi Zolinga Zakezo N’zotheka?

Ana amadziŵa kuti kukwera pa mapewa a mnzawo sikutanthauza kuti adzafikira maapulo onse. Maapulo ena abwino kwambiri amakhala pamwamba mumtengo poti sangafike. Mofananamo, asayansi ya zamankhwala achita zazikulu nthaŵi ndi nthaŵi. Koma chimene akufuna makamaka, kuti aliyense akhale ndi thanzi labwino, chidakali pamwamba mumtengo posafikika.

Choncho, pamene bungwe la European Commission linapereka lipoti mu 1998 kuti “Azungu tsopano akukhala ndi moyo wautali ndi wathanzi kuposa kale,” anawonjezera kuti: “Munthu mmodzi mwa asanu alionse adzamwalira mwamsanga asanafike zaka 65. Pafupifupi 40 peresenti adzamwalira ndi kansa ndipo 30 peresenti adzamwalira ndi matenda a mtima . . . Pafunika mankhwala amphamvu kuti tilimbane ndi matenda atsopano.”

Magazini ya zaumoyo ya ku German yotchedwa Gesundheit, mu November 1998 inanena kuti matenda oyambukira monga kolera ndi chifuwa cha TB akuopsezabe. Chifukwa chiyani? Mankhwala “sakugwiranso ntchito kwenikweni. Mabakiteriya ambiri akukanika kufa ndi mankhwala a mtundu umodzi, ndipo ena akukanika kufa ngakhale ndi mankhwala a mitundu ingapo.” Kusiyapo matenda akale amene akuyambiranso pali matenda atsopano monga AIDS. Magazini ya zamankhwala ya ku Germany ya Statistics ’97 ikutikumbutsa kuti: “Magawo aŵiri mwa atatu a matenda amene tikuwadziŵa—pafupifupi 20,000—alibe mankhwala mpaka pano.”

Kodi Kuchiritsa ndi Majini Kudzathetsa Vutoli?

N’zoona kuti mankhwala atsopano akupangidwabe. Mwachitsanzo, ambiri akuganiza kuti kusintha majini a munthu kungabweretse thanzi labwino. Pambuyo pa kafukufuku amene anachita madokotala ena monga Dr. W. French Anderson ku United States m’ma 1990, anati kuchiritsa ndi majini ndi “nkhani yatsopano yochititsa chidwi kwambiri m’kafukufuku wa zamankhwala.” Buku lakuti Heilen mit Genen (Kuchiritsa ndi Majini) limati mwa kuchiritsa ndi majini “sayansi ya zamankhwala yatsala pang’ono kuchita zazikulu. Zili choncho makamaka pamene akuchiritsa matenda omwe anali osachiritsika.”

Asayansi akukhulupirira kuti m’kupita kwa nthaŵi adzatha kuchiritsa nthenda zobadwa nazo mwa kum’baya wodwalayo jekeseni ya majini. Ngakhale maselo akupha, monga ngati a kansa, mwina adzawakonza kuti azidziwononga okha. Panopa n’zotheka kupima majini a munthu kuona ngati angagwidwe ndi matenda akutiakuti mosavuta. Ena akuti zina zimene zitheke ndi kusintha mankhwala kuti agwirizane ndi mmene majini a wodwalayo alili. Wofufuza wina wotchuka ananena maganizo ake kuti tsiku lina madokotala adzatha “kupeza matenda a wodwala ndi kuwachiritsa mwa kum’patsa tizigawo ta molekyu [ya DNA] toyenerana ndi matendawo.”

Komabe si onse amene akukhutira kuti kuchiritsa ndi majini ndiwo “mankhwala odabwitsa” a m’tsogolo. Ndithudi, malinga ndi kafukufuku, anthu mwina sangafune n’komwe kuti majini awo awapende. Ambiri akuopanso kuti kuchiritsa ndi majini kungasokoneze chibadwa.

Tidzaona m’kupita kwa nthaŵi ngati kugwiritsa ntchito majini kapena njira zina zamankhwala zapamwamba zidzakwaniritsa malonjezo awo onkitsawa kapena ayi. Koma chifukwa chilipo chopeŵera kukhala ndi chidaliro chopambanitsa. Buku lakuti The Clay Pedestal likufotokoza zimene zimachitika kambirimbiri akapeza mankhwala atsopano. Akuti: “Akatulukira mankhwala atsopano, madokotala amawatama pamisonkhano yawo ndi m’magazini a zamankhwala. Akatswiri amene awatulukira mankhwalawo amatchuka ndipo atolankhani amasimba zabwino za kutukuka kumeneko. Pamapita nthaŵi akuyamikira ndi kuwakonda mankhwala odabwitsawa ndi kutsimikiza kuti aposa ena onse. Kenaka, amayamba kukhumudwa nawo pang’onopang’ono, ndipo zimenezi zimatenga miyezi ingapo kapena zaka zambiri. Ndiyeno amatulukira mankhwala atsopano amene mwadzidzidzi amaloŵa m’malo akale aja, omwe tsopano amawaona kukhala osathandiza konse.” Ndithudi, mankhwala ochuluka amene madokotala ambiri akuti n’ngosathandiza, anali otchuka zaka zingapo chabe zapitazo.

Lerolino anthu salingalira madokotala kukhala anthu aumulungu monga momwe zinalili ndi asing’anga a makedzana. Komabe, ambiri ali ndi chizoloŵezi chowaona madokotala monga kuti ali ndi mphamvu ngati za Mulungu ndiponso kuganiza kuti sayansi ya zamankhwala ingachiritse matenda onse a anthu. Koma zimenezo n’zosatheka. M’buku lake lakuti How and Why We Age, Dr. Leornard Hayflick akuti: “Mu 1900, 75 peresenti ya anthu ku United States anamwalira asanafike zaka 65. Lerolino, chiŵerengerochi chatembenuka: pafupifupi anthu okwana 70 peresenti akumwalira atapyola zaka 65.” Kodi n’chiyani chatalikitsa moyo modabwitsa chonchi? Hayflick akulongosola kuti “zili choncho makamaka chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa imfa za ana obadwa kumene.” Tiyerekeze kuti sayansi ya zamankhwala yathetsa matenda amene amapha anthu achikulire monga matenda a mtima, kansa, ndi sitiroko. Kodi zingatanthauze kuti anthu sazimwalira? Kutalitali. Dr. Hayflick akuti ngakhale zitatero, “anthu ambiri adzakhala ndi zaka pafupifupi 100 basi.” Akuwonjeza kuti: “Anthu ameneŵa adzamwalirabe. Koma kodi adzamwalira n’chiyani? Azifooka pang’onopang’ono mpaka kumwalira.”

Ngakhale a sayansi ya zamankhwala atayesetsa motani, sangathetse imfa. N’chifukwa chiyani zili choncho? Kodi cholinga cha moyo wathanzi kwa onse angokhala maloto?

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Mawu Otsindika patsamba 4]

“Zikhulupiriro zambiri za anthu akale zikupezekabe m’zamankhwala lerolino.”—The Clay Pedestal

[Zithunzi pamasamba 4, 5]

Hippocrates, Galen, ndi Vesalius anaika maziko a sayansi yamakono ya za mankhwala

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Chilumba cha Kos ku Greece

Mwachilolezo cha National Library of Medicine

Chifanizo cha A. Vesalius chimene Jan Steven von Kalkar anasema, kuchokera m’buku la Meyer’s Encyclopedic Lexicon

[Zithunzi patsamba 6]

Ambroise Paré wometa tsitsi anali dokotala wa opaleshoni woyamba amene anatumikira mafumu anayi a ku France

Dokotala wa ku Perisiya Ar-Rāzī (kumanzere), ndi dokotala wa ku Britain Edward Jenner (kumanja)

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Paré ndi Ar-Rāzī: Mwachilolezo cha National Library of Medicine

Kuchokera m’buku lakuti Great Men and Famous Women

[Chithunzi patsamba 7]

Louis Pasteur wa ku France anapeza umboni wakuti tizilombo timayambitsa matenda

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

© Institut Pasteur

[Zithunzi patsamba 8]

Ngakhale atathetsa matenda akupha, anthu adzamwalirabe ndi ukalamba