Gawo 3
Sayansi—Kufunafuna Chowonadi kwa Mtundu wa Anthu Komapitirizabe
Chipembedzo ndi Sayansi Msanganizo Woipa
ZAKA zikwi zambiri za kufunafuna chowonadi cha sayansi zinawoneka kukhala zitayala maziko olimba a kufufuza kotsatirapo. Ndithudi palibe chimene chikanaletsa kupita patsogolo kowonjezereka. Komabe, ikutero The Book of Popular Science, “sayansi sinachite bwino konse m’zaka za zana lachitatu, lachinayi ndi lachisanu A.D.”
Makamaka zochitika ziŵiri ndizo zinachititsa zimenezi. M’zaka za zana loyamba, nyengo yatsopano yachipembedzo inayambitsidwa ndi Yesu Kristu. Ndipo zaka makumi angapo kalelo, mu 31 B.C.E., nyengo yatsopano yazandale inayamba ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa Ulamuliro wa Roma.
Mosiyana ndi anthanthi Achigiriki amene anayamba kukhalapo, Aroma “anafuna kwambiri kuthetsa mavuto amasiku onse a moyo kuposa kufunafuna chowonadi chosawoneka,” likutero buku lamaumboni lotchulidwa pamwambapa. Momvekera bwino, “iwo anachita zochepa kwambiri pa sayansi yachilengedwere.”
Komabe, Aroma anachita mbali yaikulu popitirizira chidziŵitso cha sayansi chimene chinali chitakundikidwa kufikira nthaŵiyo. Mwachitsanzo, Pliny Wamkulu m’zaka za zana loyamba anasonkhanitsa zolembedwa za sayansi zotchedwa Natural History. Ngakhale kuti zinali ndi zolakwa, zinathandizira kusunga mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya chidziŵitso cha sayansi chimene mwinamwake mibadwo ya pambuyo pake sikanakhala nacho.
Ponena za chipembedzo, mpingo Wachikristu womafutukuka mofulumirawo sunali woloŵetsedwa m’kufufuza kwa sayansi kwa panthaŵiyo. Sikuti Akristu anali kutsutsa kufufuza kwake, koma chinthu choyamba Chachikristu, chimene Kristu mwiniyo anaika, chinali kwakukulukulu kumvetsetsa ndi kufalitsa chowonadi chachipembedzo.—Mateyu 6:33; 28:19, 20.
Zaka za zana loyamba zisanathe, Akristu ampatuko anali atayamba kale kuipitsa chowonadi chachipembedzo chimene anatumidwa kuwanditsa. Zimenezi pambuyo pake zinawachititsa kuyambitsa mtundu Wachikristu champatuko, monga momwe kunalosedwera. (Machitidwe 20:30; 2 Atesalonika 2:3; 1 Timoteo 4:1) Zochitika zotsatirapo zinasonyeza kuti kukana kwawo chowonadi chachipembedzo kunali kogwirizana ndi mkhalidwe wawo wamaganizo wa mphwayi—nthaŵi zina ngakhale udani—kulinga ku chowonadi cha sayansi.
Ulaya “Wachikristu” Usiya Kukhala Mtsogoleri
The World Book Encyclopedia imafotokoza kuti m’Nyengo Zapakati (kuyambira m’zaka za zana la 5 mpaka la 15), “akatswiri ku Ulaya anakonda kwambiri theology, kapena maphunziro a chipembedzo, kuposa maphunziro a chilengedwe.” Ndipo “kugogomezera chipulumutso mmalo mwa kufufuza chilengedwe” kumeneku, Collier’s Encyclopedia ikutero, “kunali chopinga chachikulu mmalo mwakukhala chisonkhezero cha sayansi.”
Ziphunzitso za Kristu sizinali ndi cholinga cha kukhala chopinga chotero. Komabe, zikhulupiriro zonama zachipembedzo zocholoŵanacholoŵana za Chikristu Chadziko, kuphatikizapo kugogomezera kopambanitsa chipulumutso cha miyoyo yolingaliridwa kukhala yosakhoza kufa, kunapititsa patsogolo chopinga chimenechi. Maphunziro ochuluka anali kuchitidwa moyang’aniridwa ndi tchalitchi ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri anali kusamaliridwa m’nyumba za agulupa. Mkhalidwe wamaganizo wachipembedzo umenewu unachedwetsa kufunafuna chowonadi cha sayansi.
Nkhani za sayansi zinali zachiŵiri ku maphunziro a chipembedzo kuyambira poyamba penipeni pa Nyengo Ino. Kwenikweni chitukuko cha sayansi chokha chimene tingatchule chinali m’zamankhwala. Mwachitsanzo, wolemba zamankhwala wa ku Roma Aulus Celsus wa m’zaka za zana loyamba C.E., wotchedwa “Hippocrates wa Aroma,” analemba limene limawonedwa kukhala buku laukatswiri la mankhwala. Katswiri wazamankhwala Wachigiriki Pedanius Dioscorides, dokotala wa opaleshoni wa magulu ankhondo a Roma a Nero, anamaliza buku lophunzira la zamankhwala lopambana limene linagwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa zaka mazana ambiri. Galen, Mgiriki wa m’zaka za zana lachiŵiri, mwakuyambitsa physiology yongoyesa, anasonkhezera ziphunzitso ndi kuchiritsa m’zamankhwala kuchokera m’nthaŵi yake mpaka m’Nyengo Zapakati.
Nyengo ya kuima kwa sayansi inapitiriza ngakhale pambuyo pa zaka za zana la 15. Zowona, asayansi a ku Ulaya anatulukiradi zinthu m’nthaŵiyi, koma kwakukulukulu, sanali oyamba. Magazini ya Time ikuti: “[Anthu a ku China] anali akatswiri a sayansi oyamba padziko lonse. Kwa zaka zambiri Azungu asanatero, iwo anadziŵa kugwiritsira ntchito compass, kupanga mapepala ndi wonga wa mfuti, [ndi] kulemba ndi makina osindikizira.”
Chotero, chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa zikhulupiriro za sayansi mwa anthu ambiri ku Ulaya “Wachikristu,” zitaganya zopanda Chikristu zinayamba kutsogolera.
Kupita Patsogolo kwa Sayansi
Podzafika m’zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chinayi, asayansi Achiluya mofulumira anali kukhala atsogoleri m’nkhani za sayansi. Makamaka m’zaka za zana la 10 ndi 11—pamene Chikristu Chadziko sichinali kugwira bwino ntchito—iwo anakhala ndi nyengo yabwino koposa ya chipambano. Iwo anachita zambiri m’zamankhwala, chemistry, botany, physics, astronomy, ndipo koposa zonse, m’masamu. (Onani bokosi, patsamba 19.) Maan Z. Madina, mmodzi wa maprofesa a Chiluya pa Yunivesite ya Columbia, akunena kuti “mbali zina zakutizakuti za trigonometry yamakono kudzanso algebra ndi geometry zinayambidwa ndi Aluya.”
Chochuluka cha chidziŵitso chimenechi chinayambidwa ndi iwo. Koma china chinali chozikidwa pa maziko aakulu a nthanthi Zachigiriki ndipo, modabwitsa, chinayambitsidwa mwakuloŵetsedwamo kwa chipembedzo.
Kuchiyambiyambi kwa Nyengo Ino, Chikristu Chadziko chinafalikira ku Persia ndipo pambuyo pake ku Arabia ndi India. M’zaka za zana lachisanu, Nestorius, bishopu wa ku Constantinople, analoŵetsedwa mumkangano umene unachititsa kugaŵikana m’tchalitchi cha Kummaŵa. Zimenezi zinayambitsa kagulu kampatuko, ka otsatira Nestorius.
M’zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chiŵiri, pamene chipembedzo chatsopano cha Chisilamu chinabuka padziko nichiyamba mkupiti wake wa kufutukuka, otsatira Nestorius anafulumira kupatsira chidziŵitso chawo kwa Aluya olakika. Malinga nkunena kwa The Encyclopedia of Religion, “otsatira Nestorius anali oyamba kuchilikiza sayansi ndi nthanthi Zachigiriki mwakutembenuzira zilembo Zachigiriki m’Chisuri ndiyeno m’Chiluya.” Iwo analinso “oyamba kubweretsa mankhwala Achigiriki m’Baghdad.” Asayansi Achiluya anayamba kufutukula zinthu zimene anaphunzira kwa otsatira Nestorius. Chiluya chinaloŵa m’malo Chisuri monga chinenero cha sayansi muulamuliro wa Aluya ndipo chinatsimikizira kukhala chinenero choyenera kwambiri m’kalembedwe ka sayansi.
Koma Aluya anapereka ndiponso analandira chidziŵitso kwa ena. Pamene Amoor analoŵa mu Ulaya kudzera ku Spain—kudzakhala kwa zaka zoposa 700—anadza limodzi ndi njira ya kakhalidwe kopita patsogolo ya Asilamu. Ndipo m’zotchedwa Nkhondo Zamtanda Zachikristu zisanu ndi zitatu, pakati pa 1096 ndi 1272, omenya nkhondo zamtanda a Kumadzulo anachita chidwi kwambiri ndi kutsungula kopita patsogolo kwa Asilamu kumene anapeza. Iwo anabwerera, anatero wolemba wina, ali ndi “malingaliro atsopano ochuluka.”
Kufeŵetsa Masamu kwa Aluya
Chinthu chimodzi chachikulu chimene Aluya anachita ku Ulaya chinali kuyambitsa manambala a Aluya mmalo mwa zilembo zogwiritsiridwa ntchito ndi Aroma. Kwenikweni, “manambala a Aluya” ndidzina lolakwika. Mwinamwake dzina lolondola kwambiri ndilo “manambala a Ahindu ndi Aluya.” Zowona, katswiri Wachiluya wa m’zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chinayi wa masamu ndi astronomy al-Khwārizmī analemba za njira imeneyi, koma anaitenga kwa akatswiri Achihindu amasamu a ku India, amene anaiyamba zaka zoposa chikwi chimodzi kalelo, m’zaka za zana lachitatu B.C.E.
Njira imeneyi inali yosadziŵika kwambiri ku Ulaya asanailembe katswiri wamasamu Leonardo Fibonacci (wotchedwanso Leonardo wa ku Pisa) mu 1202 mu Liber abaci (Buku la Abacus). Posonyeza phindu la njira imeneyi, iye anafotokoza kuti: “Manambala asanu ndi anayi a ku India ndiwo: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. Ndi manambala asanu ndi anayi ameneŵa ndi chizindikiro cha 0 . . . nambala iliyonse ingalembedwe.” Poyamba Azungu anazengereza kuvomereza zimenezo. Koma podzafika chakumapeto kwa Nyengo Zapakati, iwo anali atalandira njira yolembera manambala imeneyi, ndipo kusavuta kwake kunalimbikitsa kupita patsogolo kwa sayansi.
Ngati mukukaikira kuti manambala a Ahindu ndi Aluya ngosavuta poyerekezera ndi manambala ogwiritsiridwa ntchito poyamba ndi Aroma, tayesani kuchotsa LXXIX mu MCMXCIII. Zavuta? Mwina kuchotsa 79 mu 1,993 kungakhale kosavutirapo.
Kudzutsanso Mzimu ku Ulaya
Kuyambira m’zaka za zana la 12, mzimu wakuphunzira umene unali waukulu m’chitaganya cha Asilamu unayamba kutha. Komabe, unadzutsidwanso ku Ulaya pamene magulu a akatswiri anayamba kupanga oyambirira a mayunivesite amakono. Chapakati pa zaka za zana la 12, yunivesite ya Paris ndi ya Oxford inayamba. Yunivesite ya Cambridge inatsatira kuchiyambi cha zaka za zana la 13, ndipo ya Prague ndi Heidelberg inayamba m’zaka za zana la 14. Podzafika m’zaka za zana la 19, mayunivesite anakhala malo apakati ofufuzira za sayansi.
Poyamba, sukulu zimenezi zinasonkhezeredwa kwambiri ndi chipembedzo, maphunziro ambiri akuzikidwa kapena kukhoterera pa maphunziro achipembedzo. Koma panthaŵi imodzimodziyo, sukulu zimenezi zinalandira nthanthi Zachigiriki, makamaka zolembedwa za Aristotle. Malinga nkunena kwa The Encyclopedia of Religion, “njira ya Akatswiri . . . m’Nyengo Zapakati zonse . . . inalinganizidwa malinga ndi lingaliro la Aristotle la kulongosola chinthu, kuchisiyanitsa, ndi kulingalira m’kumveketsa kwake zolembedwa ndi kuthetsa kwake zovuta.”
Katswiri wina wa m’zaka za zana la 13 amene anali wofunitsitsa kugwirizanitsa chidziŵitso cha Aristotle ndi maphunziro achipembedzo Achikristu anali Thomas Aquinas, amene pambuyo pake anatchedwa “Aristotle Wachikristu.” Koma iye anasiyana ndi Aristotle pamfundo zina. Mwachitsanzo, Aquinas anatsutsa chiphunzitso chakuti dziko lapansi lakhala lilipo nthaŵi zonse, akumavomereza Malemba kuti linalengedwa. Mwakumamatira “zolimba ku chikhulupiriro chakuti chilengedwe chonse chimene tilimo nchadongosolo ndi kuti chingamvetsetsedwe mwakugwiritsira ntchito luntha,” ikutero The Book of Popular Science, iye “anachita mbali yofunika kwambiri m’chitukuko cha sayansi.”
Komabe, mbali yaikulu ya ziphunzitso za Aristotle, Ptolemy, ndi Galen inalandiridwa monga chowonadi chosatsutsika ngakhale ndi tchalitchi chomwe. Buku lamaumboni lotchulidwalo likuti: “M’Nyengo Zapakati, pamene chikondwerero m’kuyesa ndi kufufuza kwachindunji kwa sayansi chinali chochepa, mawu a Aristotle ndiwo anali muyezo. Mawu akuti Ipse dixit (‘Iye mwini anatero’) ndiwo anali chigomeko chimene aphunzitsi a m’nyengo zapakati anagwiritsira ntchito kutsimikizira chowonadi cha kufufuza kochuluka ‘kwa sayansi.’ M’mikhalidwe imeneyi zolakwa za Aristotle makamaka mu physics ndi astronomy, zinachedwetsa kupita patsogolo kwa sayansi kwa zaka mazana ambiri.”
Amene anatsutsa kumamatira kopanda pake ku malingaliro a kale kumeneku anali mgulupa wa ku Oxford wa m’zaka za zana la 13 Roger Bacon. Wotchedwa “munthu wamkulu koposa m’sayansi ya m’nyengo zapakati,” Bacon anali pafupifupi yekha pochilikiza kuyesa monga njira yophunzirira zowonadi za sayansi. Kwanenedwa kuti kalelo mu 1269, pamene ena sanadziŵe, iye ananeneratu za galimoto, ndege, ndi sitima zapamadzi za injini.
Komabe, mosasamala kanthu za kuwoneratu kwake zapatali ndi luntha lake, Bacon anali ndi chidziŵitso chochepa cha zenizeni. Iye anakhulupirira zolimba mu kupenda nyenyezi, kupenduza, ndi alchemy. Zimenezi zimasonyeza kuti sayansi ndiyodi kufunafuna chowonadi komapitirizabe, kokhoza kusintha nthaŵi zonse.
Ngakhale kuti kufufuza kwa sayansi kunawoneka kukhala kozilala m’zaka za zana la 14, pamene zaka za zana la 15 zinayandira mapeto ake, kufunafuna chowonadi cha sayansi kwa mtundu wa anthu sikunali pafupi kutha. Kunena zowona, zaka 500 zotsatira zikaposa kwambiri zaka zakumbuyozo. Dziko linali pampemphenu pa kusintha kwa sayansi. Ndipo monga momwe zimakhalira pakusintha kulikonse, kumeneku kukakhala ndi ngwazi zake, zopinga zake, ndipo koposa zonse, mikhole yake. Mudzaphunziretu zochuluka m’Gawo 4 la “Sayansi—Kufunafuna Chowonadi kwa Mtundu wa Anthu Komapitirizabe” m’kope lathu lotsatira.
[Bokosi patsamba 19]
Nyengo Yachipambano cha Sayansi ya Aluya
Al-Khwārizmī (zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chitatu mpaka lachisanu ndi chinayi), katswiri wamasamu ndi astronomy wa ku Iraq; wotchuka chifukwa choyambitsa liwu la “algebra,” kuchokera ku al-jebr, yotanthauza “kugwirizanitsidwa kwa zidutswazidutswa” m’Chiluya.
Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chitatu mpaka lachisanu ndi chinayi), katswiri wa alchemy; wotchedwa woyambitsa chemistry Yachiluya.
Al-Battānī (zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chinayi mpaka lakhumi), katswiri wa astronomy ndi masamu; anawongolera njira zoŵerengera za astronomy za Ptolemy, motero kupeza molondola kwambiri zinthu zonga kutalika kwa chaka ndi nyengo.
Ar-Rāzī (Rhazes) (zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chinayi mpaka lakhumi), sing’anga wotchuka kwambiri wobadwira ku Persia, woyamba kusiyanitsa nthomba ndi chikuku ndi kuika zinthu zonse m’timagulu monga zinyama, zomera, kapena mtapo.
Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wa ku Basra (zaka za zana la 10 mpaka 11), katswiri wamasamu ndi physics; anachita zazikulu kupititsa patsogolo chiphunzitso cha optics, kuphatikizapo refraction, reflection, binocular vision, ndi atmospheric refraction; woyamba kufotokoza molondola kuti kuwona ndiko chotulukapo cha kuunika kochokera ku chinthu kuloŵa m’maso.
Omar Khayyám (zaka za zana la 11 mpaka 12), katswiri womveka wa ku Persia wa masamu, physics, astronomy, sing’anga, ndi wanthanthi; wodziŵika kwambiri kumaiko Akumadzulo chifukwa cha ndakatulo zake.
[Zithunzi patsamba 17]
Aristotle (pamwamba) ndi Plato (pansi) anali ndi chiyambukiro chachikulu pa ziphunzitso za sayansi kwa zaka mazana ambiri
[Mawu a Chithunzi]
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Musei Capitolini, Roma