Gawo 4

Sayansi—kufunafuna Chowonadi kwa Mtundu wa Anthu Komapitirizabe

Kuyambanso kwa Sayansi mwa Kusintha Kotheratu

CHIPWIRIKITI chinakantha dziko mkati mwa theka lachiŵiri la zaka za zana la 18 pamene masinthidwe otheratu anasanduliza mkhalidwe wa ndale, choyamba ku Amereka, ndiyeno ku Falansa. Panthaŵiyo, ku Mangalande kunayambika kusintha kwa mtundu wosiyana, ndiko kusintha kwa maindasitale. Kunachitika makamaka chifukwa cha kusintha kwa mtundu wina, kusintha kwa sayansi.

Ena amanena kuti kubadwanso kwa sayansi kunayamba m’ma 1540, pamene katswiri wa astronomy wa ku Poland Nicolaus Copernicus ndi katswiri wa anatomy wa ku Belgium Andreas Vesalius anafalitsa mabuku amene kwakukulukulu anayambukira zikhulupiriro za sayansi. Ena amanena kuti kusinthako kunachitika kalelo, mu 1452, pamene Leonardo da Vinci anabadwa. Pokhala woyesayesa wakhama amene anachita zochuluka m’zasayansi, Leonardo anayambitsa malingaliro amene m’njira zina anali chiyambi cha zopangapanga zimene zinasalazidwa bwino pambuyo pa zaka mazana ambiri, zonga ndege, akasinja, ndi parachuti.

Koma sayansi imene timadziŵa, akutero Ernest Nagel, profesa wosiya ntchito pa Columbia University, “sinakhazikitsidwe zolimba monga maphunziro kumaiko a Kumadzulo kufikira m’zaka za zana la khumi ndi chisanu mphambu ziŵiri ndi la khumi ndi chisanu mphambu zitatu.” Itakhazikitsidwa zolimba, kusintha kwakukulu m’mbiri ya anthu kunayambika. Buku la The Scientist likuti: “Chapakati pa 1590 ndi 1690 akatswiri ochuluka . . . anayambitsa kufufuza kosalingana ndi kwina kulikonse kochitika m’nyengo ya zaka 100 kalelo.”

Zopinga Zitsekereza Njirayo

Masayansi abodza nawonso anafalikira, mofanana ndi opinga amene ziphunzitso zawo zinatsekereza njira ya kupita patsogolo kowona kwa sayansi. Imodzi ya ameneŵa inali chiphunzitso cha phlogiston. “Phlogiston,” ndiliwu lotengedwa ku Chigiriki, lotanthuza “chotenthedwa.” Chinayambidwa mu 1702 ndi George Ernst Stahl, amene anakhulupirira kuti phlogiston inatulutsidwa pamene zinthu zogwira moto zinatenthedwa. Anaiyesa kukhala mkhalidwe mmalo mwa chinthu chenicheni, koma chikhulupiriro chakuti inali chinthu chenicheni chinakula m’kupita kwa zaka zambiri. Panali pakati pa 1770 ndi 1790 pamene Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier anatsimikizira chiphunzitsochi kukhala chonama.

The Book of Popular Science limavomereza kuti pamene chiphunzitso cha phlogiston “chinali bodza lamkunkhuniza, kwanthaŵi yakutiyakuti chinaperekabe nthanthi yogwira ntchito imene mwachiwonekere inafotokoza zinthu zambiri zovuta kumvetsetsa zachilengedwe. Chinali chabe imodzi ya nthanthi zambiri za sayansi zimene zayesedwa ndi kupezedwa zopereŵera mkati mwa zaka zambiri.”

Alchemy inali chopinga china. Harrap’s Illustrated Dictionary of Science imaimasulira kukhala “msanganizo wa nthanthi, malaulo ndi sayansi ya zamankhwala, umene unayamba nyengo Yachikristu isanakhale, wofunafuna m’njira zosiyanasiyana kusanduliza mtapo wazitsulo kukhala golidi, kutalikitsa moyo ndi chinsinsi cha kusakhoza kufa.” Isanakanidwe, alchemy inathandizira kuyala maziko a chemistry yamakono, kusintha kumene kunamalizidwa chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 17.

Chotero ngakhale kuti zinali zopinga, chiphunzitso cha phlogiston ndi alchemy chinali ndi phindu lakutilakuti. Koma simmene analili anthu opinga amene posonkhezeredwa ndi chipembedzo anakulitsa maganizo otsutsa sayansi. Mpikisano pakati pa sayansi ndi maphunziro a chipembedzo—zonse ziŵiri zodzinenera kukhala ndi ukumu wonse pa nkhani zonena za chilengedwe—kaŵirikaŵiri wachititsa kulimbana kwenikweni.

Mwachitsanzo, m’zaka za zana lachiŵiri C.E., katsŵiri womveka wa astronomy Ptolemy anayambitsa chiphunzitso cha geocentric, kutanthauza kuti pamene mapulaneti amayenda mozungulira, mbali yapakati yozunguliridwayo yotchedwa epicycle, imayenda mozungulira mbulunga inanso. Unalidi ukatswiri wa masamu umenewu ndipo unapereka malongosoledwe a kumene kumawoneka ngati kuyenda kwa dzuŵa, mwezi, mapulaneti, ndi nyenyezi kuthambo amene analandiridwa mofala kufikira zaka za zana la 16.

Copernicus (1473-1543) anayambitsa chiphunzitso chosiyana. Iye anakhulupirira kuti pamene kuli kwakuti mapulaneti, kuphatikizapo dziko lapansi, amayenda mozungulira dzuŵa, dzuŵalo silimayenda. Lingaliro limeneli—lakuti dziko lapansi lomayenda sililinso phata la chilengedwe chonse—ngati linali lowona, likakhala ndi zotsatirapo zochuluka kwambiri. Zaka zosakwanira zana limodzi pambuyo pake, katswiri wa astronomy Galileo Galilei kupyolera mwa matelescope anawona zimene zinamkhutiritsa kuti nthanthi ya Copernicus yakuti dziko lapansi limayenda mozungulira dzuŵa inalidi yowona. Koma Tchalitchi cha Katolika chinakana malingaliro a Galileo kuti anali achipanduko ndipo chinamkakamiza kubweza mawu.

Ziphunzitso zolakwa zachipembedzo zinachititsa akatswiri a zachipembedzo a tchalitchi kukana chowonadi cha sayansi. Panali pambuyo pa zaka 360 pamene tchalitchi chinachotsera Galileo mlandu wachipanduko. Nyuzipepala ya L’Osservatore Romano, m’kope lake la pamlungu la November 4, 1992, inavomereza kuti panali “kuphophonya kwakukulu m’chiweruzo” choperekedwa pamlandu wa Galileo.

Zopinga Zikalipobe

Mofananamo, m’zaka za zana la 20 lino, zipembedzo za Chikristu Chadziko zimasonyeza kupanda ulemu kofananako pa chowonadi. Zimatero mwakuchilikiza nthanthi zosatsimikizirika za sayansi motsutsana ndi chowonadi, ponse paŵiri cha sayansi ndi cha chipembedzo. Chitsanzo chabwino ndicho nthanthi ya chisinthiko yosatsimikizirika, imene kwakukulukulu ili mwana wa pathengo wa “chidziŵitso” cholakwika kwambiri cha sayansi ndi ziphunzitso zonyenga za chipembedzo.a

Charles Darwin anafalitsa buku lake la On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection pa November 24, 1859. Komatu lingaliro la chisinthiko linayambira m’nyengo ya Chikristu chisanakhale. Mwachitsanzo, wanthanthi Wachigiriki Aristotle anaika munthu pamwamba pa ndandanda ya kusinthika kuchokera ku zinyama zopanda nzeru. Poyamba, atsogoleri achipembedzo anakana nthanthi ya Darwin, koma The Book of Popular Science limati: “[Pambuyo pake] chisinthiko chinakhala kanthu koposa nthanthi ya sayansi . . . chinakhala mphamvu yosonkhezera ndipo ngakhale nthanthi.” Lingaliro lakuti wamphamvu ndiye apulumuka linakopa anthu ofuna malo apamwamba.

Posapita nthaŵi chitsutso cha atsogoleri achipembedzo chinafota. Buku la The Encyclopedia of Religion limanena kuti “nthanthi ya chisinthiko ya Darwin sinangolandiridwa komanso inatamandidwa kopambana,” ndi kuti “podzafika nthaŵi ya imfa yake mu 1883, atsogoleri achipembedzo oganiza kwambiri ndi odziŵa kulankhula anafikira pakugamula kuti chisinthiko chinali chogwirizana kotheratu ndi kumvetsetsa kounikiridwa kwa malemba.”

Ananena zimenezi mosasamala kanthu ndi kuvomereza kotsatiraku kwa The Book of Popular Science: “Ngakhale ochilikiza ouma mutu a chiphunzitso cha chisinthiko cha misanganizo ya zamoyo anakakamizika kuvomereza kuti munali zolakwa ndi kusoŵeka kwa maumboni kosautsa m’nthanthi yoyambirira ya Darwin.” Likumanena kuti “mbali zambiri za nthanthi yoyambirira ya Darwin zakonzedwanso kapena kufafanizidwa,” komabe bukulo limapitirizabe kunena kuti “chiyambukiro [cha chisinthiko] pafupifupi pa mbali iliyonse ya zochita za munthu chakhala chachikulu kwambiri. Mbiri, archaeology ndi ethnology yasintha kwambiri chifukwa cha nthanthiyo.”

Lerolino, asayansi oganiza kwambiri amakaikira kwambiri nthanthi ya chisinthiko. Sir Fred Hoyle, woyambitsa wa Cambridge Institute of Theoretical Astronomy amenenso ali chiŵalo cha American National Academy of Sciences, zaka khumi zapitazo analemba kuti: “Pandekha, sindikaikira kwambiri kuti olemba mbiri ya sayansi a mtsogolo adzakuwona kukhala kodabwitsa kuti nthanthi imene inawoneka kukhala yosagwira ntchito inafikira pakukhulupiriridwa mofala.”

Chikumafafaniza motero magwero a kukhalapo kwa anthu, chisinthiko chimalanda Mlengi ulemu womuyenera. Ndiponso chimatsutsa kudzinenera kwake kukhala cha sayansi ndipo sichimachilikiza kufunafuna chowonadi cha sayansi kwa mtundu wa anthu komapitirizabe. Karl Marx anali wokondwa kulandira chisinthiko ndi lingaliro lakuti ‘wamphamvu ndiye apulumuka’ kusonkhezera kuyambika kwa Chikomyunizimu. Koma chisinthiko ndicho chopinga chamtundu woipitsitsa.

Kodi Ndani Amene Ali Mikhole Yake?

Aliyense wosocheretsedwa kukhulupirira nthanthi za sayansi yabodza amakhala mkhole wake. Koma ngakhale kukhulupirira zowonadi za sayansi nkowopsa. Kupita patsogolo kochititsa chidwi kwa sayansi kochitika chifukwa cha kusintha kotheratu kwasayansi kunapusitsa ambiri kukhulupirira kuti tsopano palibe zimene sizingatheke.

Chikhulupiriro chimenechi chinalimbitsidwa pamene kupita patsogolo kwa sayansi kunapitiriza kufafaniza maganizo otsutsa sayansi amene chipembedzo chonyenga chinapereka. Malonda ndi ndale zinayamba kuzindikira sayansi kukhala chida champhamvu chogwiritsira ntchito kupezera zonulirapo zawo, zikhale zipambano za ndalama kapena kulimbitsa ulamuliro wa ndale.

Mosakaikira, sayansi mwapang’onopang’ono inayamba kukhala mulungu, kuyambika kwa kukhulupirira sayansi. Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary imamasulira kumeneku kukhala “chidaliro chopambanitsa m’zotulukapo zogwira ntchito za njira za sayansi yachilengedwere zogwiritsiridwa ntchito m’mbali zonse za kufufuza.”

Pamene mapeto a zaka za zana la 19 anayandikira, anthu anakaikira zimene zaka za zana la 20 zikadzetsa. Kodi sayansi ikapanga zimene ambiri anaganiza kuti ikakhoza, kukhazikitsa “malo enieni a chimwemwe padziko lapansi”? Kapena kodi zopinga zake zikapitiriza kudodometsa kusinthaku zikumachititsa mikhole yake kuwonjezeka? Nkhani yakuti “‘Chozizwitsa’ Chochitika m’Zaka za Zana la 20,” imene idzakhala m’kope lotsatira, idzapereka yankho.

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Bokosi patsamba 20]

Popanda Magetsi

POSACHEDWAPA kuchiyambiyambi kwa zaka za zana la 19, magetsi analingaliridwa kukhala chinthu chodabwitsa kwambiri koma sanagwiritsiridwe ntchito kwambiri. Komabe, amuna a kumaiko ndi a makulidwe osiyanasiyana, kuphatikizapo H. C. Ørsted (1777-1851), M. Faraday (1791-1867), A. Ampère (1775-1836), ndi B. Franklin (1706-90), anatulukira zinthu zofunika kwambiri zimene zinakhala zosiyana, mwakutero akumayala maziko a dziko lamakono la magetsi—dziko limene silingagwire ntchito popanda magetsi.

[Zithunzi patsamba 21]

Nicolaus Copernicus

Galileo Galilei

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Zithunzithunzi zatengedwa mu Giordano Bruno and Galilei (kope la Chijeremani)