Gutenberg—Mmene Anatukulira Dziko!

YOLEMBEDWA NDI MTOLANKHANI WA GALAMUKANI! KU GERMANY

KODI ndi chinthu chiti chomwe chinayambitsidwa zaka chikwi zapitazo chomwe chakhudza kwambiri moyo wanu? Kodi ndi telefoni, wailesi yakanema, kapena galimoto? Mwina mwake si chimodzi mwa zimenezi. Malinga ndi zimene ananena akatswiri, ndi makina osindikizira mabuku. Munthu amene amathokozedwa chifukwa chopeza njira ya kalembedwe imeneyi ndi Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden, amene amadziŵika bwino ndi dzina loti Johannes Gutenberg. Anabadwira m’banja lachifumu, motero sanali kugwira nawo ntchito wamba.

Gutenberg analongosoledwa kukhala munthu “waluso kwambiri amene anathandiza pachitukuko cha Germany.” Buku lililonse lomwe adalemba limene lidakalipo—lotchedwa kuti Baibulo la Gutenberg lamizere 42—ndi lokwera mtengo kwambiri.

Mainz Tauni Yotukuka

Gutenberg anabadwira ku Mainz, m’chaka cha 1397 kapena pafupifupi chaka chimenecho. Tauni ya Mainz ili mphepete mwa Mtsinje wa Rhine ndipo panthaŵiyo inali ndi anthu 6,000. Inkadziŵika ndi dzina loti Golden Mainz, kutanthauza yotukuka, chifukwa mzindawo unali likulu la matauni ena olemera. Mabishopu a ku Mainz ndiwo ankasankhidwa monga atsogoleri a Holy Roman Empire. Mainz inali yotchuka chifukwa cha amisiri osula zinthu za golide. Johannes ali wachinyamata anaphunzira umisiri wosula zitsulo, kuphatikizapo kupanga zilembo zachitsulo. Chifukwa cha mikangano ya zandale, anathaŵira ku Strasbourg kwa zaka zingapo, kumene anakayamba kuphunzitsa ndiponso kukonza zinthu zamiyala zokongola. Koma chomwe chinazika mizu m’malingaliro mwake ndi ntchito yomwe ankailingalira mwachinsinsi yakuti apange chinthu chatsopano. Gutenberg ankayesera kupanga makina osindikizira mabuku.

Luso la Gutenberg ndi Ndalama za Fust

Gutenberg anabwerera ku Mainz ndipo anakapitiriza ntchito yake yoyesera kupanga makina osindikizira mabuku. Kuti apeze ndalama, anakambirana ndi Johann Fust amene anamkongoza 1,600 guldens—ndalama zomwe zikanapezeka ndi ana achifumu okha panthaŵiyo pamene m’misiri wamba ankapeza 30 guldens pachaka. Fust anali munthu wa zamalonda wochenjera amene anazindikira za phindu lomwe lingapezeke malingaliro amenewo atatheka. Kodi Gutenberg ankalingalira ntchito yanji?

Gutenberg anali ndi chidwi poona kuti zinthu zina zambiri zinkapangidwa koma zonse zofanana m’maonekedwe monga ndalama zachitsulo ndiponso zipolopolo. Choncho chingalepheretse nchiyani kulemba mapepala ambiri ofanana a mabuku ndiye kenaka nkuwaphatikiza motsatizana kuyambira loyamba mpaka lomalizira kupanga mabuku ofanana? Koma nanga mabuku ati? Iye analingalira za Baibulo, buku limene linali lokwera mtengo lomwe ndi anthu ochepa chabe omwe anali ndi mwayi wokhala nalo lawolawo. Gutenberg anali ndi cholinga cholemba mabaibulo ambiri ofanana m’makonzedwe, omwe akhale otsika mtengo kwambiri kuposa olemba pamanja komabe ali okongola. Kodi zimenezi zikanachitika motani?

Mabuku ambiri ankalembedwa pamanja, ndipo zimenezi zinkafuna kusamala kwambiri ndiponso zinkatenga nthaŵi yaitali. Kusindikiza mabuku kunali kutayesedwapo kale mwakugwiritsira ntchito matabwa osemedwa pamanja, lililonse lili lokwanira pepala limodzi. Munthu wa ku China wotchedwa Pi Sheng anali atapangapo kale zilembo zadothi kuti azizigwiritsira ntchito kusindikiza mabuku. Ku Korea, ankagwiritsira ntchito zilembo zamkuwa pantchito za boma zosindikiza mabuku. Koma kusindikiza mwakugwiritsira ntchito zilembo zotheka kusunthidwa—chilembo chilichonse pachokha zimene mungathe kuziyalanso kupanga tsamba lina latsopano—kunkafunikira zilembo zambiri ndipo panalibe yemwe anatulukira njira yozipangira. Zimenezo zinkadikira Gutenberg.

Monga munthu wozoloŵera ntchito yaumisiri wa zitsulo, anazindikira kuti kusindikiza mabuku kungachitike bwino mwakugwiritsira ntchito zilembo zomwe zingathe kusunthidwa osati zoumba ndi dothi kapena zopangidwa ndi mtengo koma chitsulo. Zinayenera kuchita kuumbidwa m’chikombole, osati kuchita kusema kapena kuwotcha muuvuni. Gutenberg anafunikira kukhala ndi zikombole zimene akanatha kuumbiramo zilembo zonse 26 za alifabeti yake—zilembo zing’onozing’ono ndi zikuluzikulu—ndiponso zilembo zophatikizana, zizindikiro zopumira, zizindikiro zina, ndi manambala. Zonse pamodzi anapeza kuti pankafunika zilembo zosiyanasiyana 290, ndipo chilichonse chokhala ndi zinzake zofanana nazo zambirimbiri.

Kuyamba Ntchito

Guternberg anasankha kalembedwe kotchedwa Gothic, m’Chilatini, chimene amonke ankagwiritsira ntchito polemba Baibulo. Chifukwa chakuti anali wozoloŵera kusula zitsulo, anasula malemba mowatembenuza lemba lililonse ndi chizindikiro chilichonse, ndiko kuti, chooneka bwino. (Chithunzi 1) Chidindo chachitsulo chimenechi anachigwiritsira ntchito kupanga malembo ofananawo pazitsulo zina zosalimba kwenikweni, monga mkuwa ndi brass. Zotsatira zake pamapangika chilembo chofananadi ndi chija anagwiritsira ntchito podinda.

Chachiŵiri chinali kuumba zikombole zoti aziumbiramo zilembo limene linali luso lapamwamba la Gutenberg. Zikombolezo zinkakhala zazikulu ngati nkhonya ya munthu ndipo zinali zotsegula kumwamba ndi pansi. Chitsulo chosalimba kwenikweni chija chomwe anadindapo malembo amachiika kunsi kwa chikombolecho, ndiye nkuthiramo phalaphala la chitsulo chosungunulidwacho. (chithunzi 2) Zitsulo zina monga—tin, lead, antimoy ndi bismuth—zinkazizira ndi kulimba mwamsanga.

Chitsulo chotengedwa m’chikombolemo chinkakhala chitadindika lemba lija mbali imodzi koma lili lozondoka ndipo chinkatchedwa kuti tayipi. Ankagwiritsira ntchito njirayi mobwerezabwereza kufikira atapanga chiŵerengero chokwana cha zilembo zamtundu umenewo. Ndiye ankachotsa chitsulo chosalimba chija anaika kunsi ndikuikapo china. Choncho anatha kupanga chiŵerengero chokwana malembo onse ndiponso zizindikiro zina pakanthaŵi kochepa. Zilembo zonse zinali zotalika mofanana, monga momwe Gutenberg ankafunira. Tsopano akanatha kuyamba ntchito yosindikiza.

Tsopano kunali kotheka kuyamba kusindikiza. Gutenberg anasankha ndime m’Baibulo imene ankafuna kusindikiza. Mwakugwiritsira ntchito ndodo yondandalikira zilembo anagwiritsira ntchito zilembozo kulemba mawu, nkupanga mizeremizere yomwe inapanga ndime. (Chithunzi 3) Mzere ulionse anaulinganiza bwino, ndiko kuti ulionse ufanane ndi unzake kutalika kwake. Mwakugwiritsira ntchito chipangizo chotchedwa galley, analinganiza mizere yonse nkupanga ndime, patsamba limodzi nkulemba m’madanga aŵiri. (chithunzi 4)

Ndiye malemba ameneŵa atakwanira tsamba anaŵamangirira pachinthu chathyathyathya chomwe ankasindikizirapo ndiye amaŵathira inki yakuda. (Chithunzi 5) Makina osindikizirawo—ofanana ndi aja amagwiritsira ntchito popanga vinyo—amapangitsa kuti inki ipakike kuchokera pazilembo zija nkudindika papepala. Zotsatira zake zinali zakuti pamasindikizidwa tsamba lathunthu. Ndiye ankawonjezera inki ndiponso nkuika mapepala ena ndipo ankachita zimenezo mobwerezabwereza kufikira atasindikiza masamba ambiri monga mmene ankafunira. Popeza zilembozo zinali zotheka kusunthidwa, zinkatheka kundandalikanso kupanga tsamba lina.

Luso Losindikiza

Gutenberg analemba ntchito anthu okwana pakati pa 15 ndi 20 pakampani yake ndipo anatsiriza kusindikiza Baibulo loyamba mu 1455. Analemba okwana pafupifupi 180. Lililonse linali ndi masamba 1,282, tsamba lililonse lokhala ndi mizere 42, m’madanga aŵiri. Polumikiza masambawo ndi kuika zikuto—Baibulo lililonse linkakhala mabuku aŵiri—mitu yankhani ndi chilembo choyambirira chilichonse ankalemba pamanja mokongoletsa kwambiri ndipo ankazichita nthaŵi ina kwina osati m’fakitale ya Gutenbergeyo.

Kodi tingathe kudziŵa mwakungolingalira kuti ndi zilembo zingati zimene anafunikira kuti asindikize Baibulo? Tsamba lililonse limafunikira zilembo zokwana 2,600. Titangoyerekeza kuti Gutenberg anali ndi makina asanu ndi amodzi, amene alionse ankatha kulemba masamba atatu nthaŵi imodzi, ndiye kuti akanafunika zilembo 46,000. Tingathe kumvetsetsa kuti zilembo zimene anaumba Gutenberg ndizo zinatsegulira njira yosindikizira yokhala ndi zilembo zotheka kusunthidwa.

Anthu anadabwa pamene anafananiza mabaibulowo: Liwu lililonse linali pamalo amodzimodzi omwewo monga mwina monse. Izi zinali zinthu zosatheka m’mabuku olemba pamanja. Gunther S. Wegener analemba kuti mabaibulo amizere 42 ameneŵa anali “ofanana kwambiri ndi okongola, mwakuti kwa nthaŵi yaitali osindikiza mabuku anali odabwa kwambiri ndi luso limeneli.”

Vuto la Zachuma

Komabe, Fust analibe chidwi nkupititsa patsogolo luso limeneli koma kupanga ndalama. Anaona kuti sanapezepo phindu mwamsanga monga mmene ankaganizira. Mabwenzi aŵiri ameneŵa anasemphana mawu, ndipo mu 1455—panthaŵi imene ankamaliza kusindikiza mabaibulo—Fust ananeneratu kuti akufuna ndalama zake zonse. Gutenberg analephera kubweza ndalamazo ndipo mlandu unakamgwera kukhothi. Iye anaumirizidwa kuti ampatse Fust zina mwa zida zake zosindikizira ndi zilembo zomwe anagwiritsira ntchito posindikiza mabaibulo. Fust anatsegula kampani yosindikiza mabuku pamodzi ndi Peter Schoffer, katswiri yemwe Gutenberg anamlemba ntchito. Bizinesi yawoyo yomwe anaitcha kuti Fust ndi Schoffer ndiyo inadyerera mapindu onse amene Gutenberg anayambitsa ndipo ndiyo inali kampani yoyamba padziko lapansi yosindikiza mabuku yomwe inakwanitsa kuyendetsa ntchito zake bwino.

Gutenberg anayesera kupitiriza ntchito yake mwakukhazikitsa makina ena osindikizira. Akatswiri a zamaphunziro ena amati ndiye analemba mabuku ena a m’zaka za zana la 15. Komabe palibe limene linali lolemekezeka ndi lokongola ngati Baibulo la mizere 42 lija. Tsoka linanso linamgwera mu 1462. Tauni ya Mainz inatenthedwa ndipo akuba anaba zinthu mwachisawawa pamene atsogoleri a Katolika ankalimbirana udindo. Kachiŵirinso fakitale ya Gutenberg inawonongedwa. Iye anamwalira zaka zisanu nchimodzi pambuyo pake, mu February 1468.

Kutsanzira Ntchito ya Gutenberg

Luso limene Gutenberg anayambitsa linafalikira mwamsanga. Pofika m’chaka cha 1500, munali makampani osindikiza mabuku okwana 60 m’matauni a ku Germany ndiponso m’maiko ena 12 a ku Ulaya. The New Encyclopædia Britannica inati, “chitukuko pantchito yosindikiza chinapangitsa kuwongokera kwa ntchito za mtokoma. Pambuyo pazaka 500 papangidwa zambiri kusintha makina osindikizira kuti akhale abwinoko, koma njira yake ndi yomwe ijabe.”

Ntchito yosindikiza inapangitsa miyoyo ya anthu a ku Ulaya kusintha chifukwa chakuti anthu ambiri anayamba kuphunzira m’malo mwakuti maphunziro azingokhala a anthu oŵerengeka okha amwayiwo. Anthu wamba anayamba kumva nkhani, ndipo anayamba kudziŵa zimene zikuchitika kumbali zosiyanasiyana. Kusindikiza kunatheketsa kuti chilankhulo cha m’dziko lililonse chikhale nkalembedwe kakekake kamene aliyense angathe kumva. Motero, zilankhulo monga Chingelezi, Chifalansa, ndi Chijeremani zinakhala nkalembedwe kake koyenera ndipo kanasungidwa. Panakhalanso kuwonjezereka kwa kulakalaka mabuku oŵerenga. Gutenberg asanabadwe kunali mabuku oŵerengeka chabe ku Ulaya; patapita zaka 50 kuchokera pamene anafa, kunali mabuku mamiliyoni ambiri.

Kukonzanso zikhulupiliro zachipembedzo kochitika m’zaka za zana la 16 sikukadatheka pakadapanda makina osindikizira. Baibulo linatembenuzidwa m’Chiczech, Chidatchi, Chingelezi, Chifalansa, Chijeremani, Chitaliyana, Chipolishi, ndi Chilasha, ndipo kusindikiza kunapangitsa kuti mabaibulo zikwi makumi ambiri afalitsidwe. Martin Luther anagwiritsira ntchito makina osindikiziraŵa kufalitsa uthenga wake. Anakwanitsa kuchita zimene ankafuna pamene ena amene anakhalako Gutenberg asanapange makina osindikizira analephera. Nzosadabwitsa kuti Luther anatcha makina osindikizira mabuku kuti anali njira ya Mulungu “yofalitsira chipembedzo choona m’dziko lonse lapansi”!

Mabaibulo a Gutenberg Omwe Alipo

Kodi ndi mabaibulo angati a Gutenberg omwe adakalipo mpaka lero? Panali chikhulupiriro chakuti alipo 48 mpaka kufikira chaposachedwapa—ena a iwo amangopezeka mbali imodzi chabe—ku Ulaya ndi ku North America alipo ambiri. Limodzi la mabaibulo abwino ameneŵa lili ku Washington, D.C. ku Laibulale ya Congress. Ndiye mu 1996, panapezeka chinthu china chosangalatsa: Mbali ina yachigawo cha Baibulo la Gutenberg inapezeka pamabuku akale m’tchalitchi ku Rendsburg, Germany.—Onani Galamukani! ya Chingelezi ya January 22, 1998, tsamba 29.

Tili oyamikira chotani nanga kuti aliyense angathe kupeza Baibulo! Izi sizikutanthauza kuti tikhoza kukagula la mizere 42 la Gutenberg! Kodi limodzi lokha mwa ameneŵa mtengo wake ndi wotani? Gutenberg Museum ku Mainz inagulako limodzi mu 1978 pamtengo wa mamiliyoni 3.7 deutsche marks (lero zimenezo ndi ndalama zokwana $2 miliyoni) Ndipo Baibuloli tsopano nlodula kuposa mtengo umenewo kuŵirikiza kambiri.

Kodi chimapangitsa Baibulo la Gutenberg kukhala lapadera nchiyani? Professor Helmut Presser, dailekitala wakale wa Gutenberg Museum, anapereka malingaliro ake kuti zifukwa zake ndi zitatu izi. Choyamba, Baibulo la Gutenberg ndilo linali loyamba kusindikizidwa kumaiko a ku Madzulo mwakugwiritsira ntchito zilembo zotha kusunthidwa. Chachiŵiri, ndilo Baibulo loyamba lochita kusindikizidwa. Chachitatu, nlokongola kwambiri. Pulofesa Presser analemba kuti m’Baibulo la Gutenberg timaonamo “mmene kalembedwe ka Gothic kanaliri pamene kankagwiritsidwa ntchito.”

Anthu amakhalidwe osiyanasiyana ayenera kuyamikira luso la Gutenberg. Iye anagwiritsira ntchito zikombole zoumbira zitsulo, kusakaniza phalaphala la zitsulo zosiyanasiyana, inki, ndi njira yosindikizira. Iye anayambitsa makina osindikizira ndipo anatukula dziko.

[Zithunzi patsamba 28]

1. Chidindo chachitsulo chinagwiritsidwa ntchito kudinda choika kunsi kwa chikombole

2. Phalaphala la zitsulo linathiridwa m’chikombole. Litauma, panapangika chilembo chotembenuka

3. Zilembo zinaikidwa pamodzi kulemba mawu, nkupanga mizere ya ndime ya nkhani

4. Mizere inaphatikizidwa pamodzi kupanga madanga pogwiritsa ntchito chida cha “galley”

5. Zilembozo zitaikidwa pamodzi kupanga tsamba, zinaikidwa pachinthu cha thyathyathya chomwe ankasindikizira

6. Zilembo za Gutenberg zolembedwa pa “copperplate” zakale mu 1584

7. Lerolino, Baibulo limodzi la Gutenberg mtengo wake ndi madola mamiliyoni ambiri

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Zithunzi 1-4, 6, ndi 7: Gutenberg-Museum Mainz; chithunzi 5: Courtesy American Bible Society

[Mawu a Chithunzi patsamba 28]

Kumbuyo: By Permission of the British Library/Gutenberg Bible