Kodi Bukulo Linapulumuka Bwanji?
Mabuku akale anali ndi adani ake achilengedwe—moto, chinyontho, nkhungu. Baibulonso linaloŵeredwa ndi adaniŵa. Mbiri yonena za mmene lapulumukira zaka zonsezo mpaka kukhala buku loŵerengedwa kopambana mabuku onse akale padziko lapansi njapadera. Mbiri imeneyo tiyenera kuchita nayo chidwi zedi.
OLEMBA Baibulo sanazokote mawu awo pamiyala; ndiponso sanawalembe pamapale okhalitsa. Umboni ukusonyeza kuti iwo analemba mawu awo pa zinthu zokhoza kuwonongeka—gumbwa (lopangidwa ndi chomera cha ku Igupto cha dzina limodzimodzilo) ndi zikopa (za nyama).
Kodi nchiyani chinachitikira zolemba zoyamba? Ziyenera kuti zinawonongeka kalekale, ndipo zochuluka ziyenera kuti zinawonongekera ku Israyeli. Katswiri wa maphunziro Oscar Paret akufotokoza kuti: “Zolembapo ziŵiri zimenezi [gumbwa ndi chikopa] zimawonongeka ndi chinyontho, nkhungu, ndiponso mphutsi zosiyanasiyana. Tikudziŵa malinga nzimene timaona tsiku ndi tsiku mmene pepala, ngakhale chikopa cholimba, chimawonongekera chitasiyidwa panja kapena m’chipinda mwachinyontho.”1
Ngati kulibe makope oyambirira, nanga mawu a olemba Baibulo anapulumuka bwanji kufika masiku athu ano?
Anasungidwa ndi Okopa Osamalitsa Kwambiri
Makope oyambirirawo atangotha kuwalemba, anayamba kuwakopa ndi manja. Kwenikweni kukopa Malemba kunakhala ntchito m’Israyeli. (Ezara 7:6; Salmo 45:1) Komabe, makopewo anawalembanso pa zinthu zokhoza kuwonongeka. M’kupita kwa nthaŵi anafunikira kusintha makopewo ndi kupanga enanso okopa ndi manja. Pamene oyambirirawo anatheratu, atsopanowo anakhala maziko a malembo apamanja a mtsogolo. Kuwakopa amenewo inali ntchito yomwe inapitiriza zaka mazana ambiri. Kodi zolakwa za okopawo pazaka mazana ambiri zinasintha kwambiri malembo a m’Baibulo? Umboni ukusonyeza kuti sizinatero.
Okopa aukatswiriwo anali odzipereka kwambiri. Anali kuwalemekeza kwambiri mawu omwe anali kuwakopawo. Analinso osamalitsa kwambiri. Liwu lachihebri limene latembenuzidwa kuti “mlembi” ndilo so·pherʹ, limene limatanthauza kuŵerengera ndi kulemba. Monga chitsanzo chabe cha kusamala kwa alembiwo, tatengani Amasorete.a Thomas Hartwell Horne akufotokoza za iwo: “Iwo . . . anali kudziŵa chilembo chapakati pa Pentatuke [mabuku oyambirira asanu a Baibulo], mawu apakati pa buku lililonse, ndi nthaŵi imene chilembo chilichonse cha alufabeti [yachihebri] chimapezeka m’Malemba Achihebri.”3
Chotero, okopa aukatswiriwo anagwiritsira ntchito njira zambiri poyerekezera makope kuti atsimikize kuti zonse zili bwino. Kuti asaphonye chilembo ngakhale chimodzi pamawu a m’Baibulo, iwo anafika ndi poŵerengera osati chabe mawu amene anawakopawo komanso ndi zilembo zomwe. Talingalirani za kusamalitsa kwawo: Malinga ndi malipoti, iwo anaŵerengera zilembo 815,140 m’Malemba Achihebri chimodzi ndi chimodzi!4 Khama lawolo linachititsa kuti akhale olondola kwambiri.
Ngakhale ndi tero, sikuti okopawo anali osalakwa. Kodi pali umboni wakuti, ngakhale kuti malembo a Baibulo anali kuwakopa mobwerezabwereza pazaka mazana ambiri, iwo apulumuka adakali odalirika?
Maziko Olimba Okhalira ndi Chidaliro
Pali chifukwa chabwino chokhulupirira kuti Baibulo lafika masiku athu lili lolondola. Umboniwo ndiwo malembo apamanja omwe alipo—a Malemba Achihebri onse kapena zigawo zake okwana ngati 6,000 ndiponso a Malemba achikristu m’Chigiriki okwana ngati 5,000. Mwa ameneŵa pali malembo apamanja a Malemba Achihebri amene anapezeka mu 1947 osonyeza kuti anali kukopa Malemba molondola kwambiri. Chiyambire nthaŵiyo, iwo atchedwa “malembo apamanja opambana onse opezeka m’nthaŵi yamakono.”5
Pamene mbusa wachinyamata wachibedowini anali kuŵeta nkhosa zake, anapeza phanga pafupi ndi Nyanja Yakufa. Mmenemo anapezamo mitsuko yambiri, yochuluka inalibemo kanthu. Komabe, m’mtsuko umodzi, umene unali wotsekeratu, anapezamo mpukutu wachikopa umene unali wokulunga bwinobwino m’nsalu yabafuta ndipo unalembedwapo buku lonse la m’Baibulo la Yesaya. Mpukutu umenewo wosungika bwino koma wothaitha unali ndi zizindikiro zakuti anaukonzapo. Mbusa wachinyamatayo sanadziŵe kuti mpukutu wakalewo umene anagwira m’dzanja lake ndi umene dziko lonse lidzasumikapo maganizo mtsogolomo.
Kodi nchiyani chinali chapadera ndi malembo apamanja ameneŵa? Mu 1947 malembo apamanja athunthu akale kwambiri achihebri omwe analipo anali a m’zaka ngati za zana la khumi C.E. Koma mpukutu umenewu unapezeka kukhala wa m’zaka za zana lachiŵiri B.C.E.b—unali wakale kuposa winawo ndi zaka zoposa chikwi.c Akatswiri a maphunziro anafunitsitsa kudziŵa kufanana kwa mpukutu umenewu ndi malembo apamanja omwe anadzakhalako pambuyo pake.
Pakufufuza kwina, akatswiri a maphunziro anayerekezera chaputala 53 cha Yesaya wa m’Mpukutu wa ku Nyanja Yakufa ndi cha m’malemba a Amasorete amene analembedwa zaka chikwi pambuyo pake. Buku lakuti A General Introduction to the Bible, likufotokoza zomwe anapeza: “Pa mawu okwanira 166 a mu Yesaya 53, pali zilembo zokayikitsa khumi ndi zisanu ndi ziŵiri zokha basi. Zilembo khumi mwa zimenezi zangokhala kalembedwe ka mawu, kamene sikakhudza tanthauzo lake. Zilembo zina zinayi ndi kusintha pang’ono chabe ntchito ya mawu, monga makonjankishoni kaya kuti alumikizi. Zilembo zitatu zotsala zipanga liwu lakuti ‘kuunika,’ lowonjezedwa m’vesi 11, ndipo silikhudza kwenikweni tanthauzo lake. . . . Chotero, m’chaputala chimodzi cha mawu 166, muli liwu limodzi lokha (la zilembo zitatu) lokayikitsa pambuyo polembedwa mobwerezabwereza zaka chikwi—ndipo liwu limeneli silimasintha kwenikweni tanthauzo la ndimeyo.”7
Profesa Millar Burrows, amene anagwira ntchito pamipukutuyo zaka zambiri, kupenda mawu ake, anafika ponena zonga zimenezo kuti: “Zambiri zosiyana . . . m’mpukutu wa Yesaya ndi m’malembo a Amasorete tingazifotokoze kuti ndi kuphonya pokopa. Kusiyapo zimenezo, amagwirizana kwambiri, onse, ndi mawu opezeka m’malembo apamanja a m’nyengo zapakati. Kugwirizana kumeneko kwa m’malembo apamanja akale kwambiri kumapereka umboni wotsimikiza wakuti malembo akale onse omwe alipo ngolondola.”8
“Umboni wotsimikiza” ungaperekedwenso ponena za Malemba Achigiriki Achikristu. Mwachitsanzo, kupezeka kwa buku lamakedzana la Codex Sinaiticus m’zaka za zana la 19, la malembo apamanja a m’zaka za zana lachinayi C.E. olemba pachikopa cha mwana wa nkhosa, kunathandiza kutsimikiza kuti malembo apamanja a Malemba Achigiriki Achikristu amene analembedwa zaka mazana ambiri pambuyo pake anali olondola. Chidutswa chagumbwa cha Uthenga Wabwino wa Yohane, chimene chinapezeka kudera la Faiyūm, Igupto, chili cha kumayambiriro a zaka za zana lachiŵiri C.E., zaka zosakwana 50 kuchokera pamene kope loyambirira linalembedwa. Chinasungika zaka mazana ambiri m’mchenga wouma. Mawu ake amagwirizana ndi aja a m’malembo apamanja okhalako zaka zambiri pambuyo pake.9
Chotero umboni ukutsimikiza kuti okopawo kunena zoona analondola kwambiri. Ngakhale ndi tero, iwo anapangabe zolakwa zina. Kulibe malembo apamanja ngakhale amodzi amene alibe zolakwa—ngakhale Mpukutu wa Yesaya wa ku Nyanja Yakufa. Koma ngakhale zili tero, akatswiri a maphunziro apeza zosiyana ndi za m’makope oyamba ndipo aziwongolera.
Kuwongolera Zolakwa za Okopa
Tinene kuti anthu 100 apemphedwa kukopa pamanja chikalata chachitali kwambiri. Simungakayikire kuti ena mwa okopawo adzapanga zolakwa. Komabe, zolakwa zawo sizidzakhala zimodzimodzi. Ngati mungatenge makope onse 100 ndi kuwayerekezera bwinobwino, mudzatha kupeza zolakwazo ndi kudziŵa mawu enieni a chikalata choyamba chija, ngakhale ngati simunachionepo.
Momwemonso, okopa Baibulo sanapange zolakwa zimodzimodzi. Pokhala ndi malembo apamanja a Baibulo zikwi zambiri ogwiritsira ntchito pofufuza, akatswiri a maphunziro a zamalembo atha kupeza zolakwazo, kudziŵa mawu oyambirira, ndi kuwongolera zofunika kuwongolera. Chifukwa cha kufufuza mosamalitsa kumeneko, akatswiri a maphunziro a zamalembo apanga makope achitsanzo a zinenero zoyambirira. Makope okonzedwanso ameneŵa a malembo achihebri ndi achigiriki amagwiritsira ntchito mawu omwe akatswiri ochuluka anavomerezana kuti ndiwo oyambirira, nthaŵi zambiri akumasonyeza m’mawu amtsinde kusiyana kumene kungakhalepo m’malembo ena apamanja ndiponso njira zina zotchulira mawuwo. Makope okonzedwansowo a akatswiri a maphunziro a zamalembo ndiwo amene otembenuza Baibulo amagwiritsira ntchito potembenuza Baibulo m’zinenero zamakono.
Chotero pamene mutenga Baibulo lamatembenuzidwe amakono ndi kuliŵerenga, muli ndi chifukwa chabwino chokhulupirira kuti malembo achihebri ndi achigiriki omwe lazikidwapo akuimira mokhulupirika zedi mawu a alembi oyambirira a Baibulo.d Mbiri ya mmene Baibulo lapulumukira zaka zikwi zambiri akumalikopa mobwerezabwereza pamanja njodabwitsadi. Ndiye chifukwa chake Bwana Frederic Kenyon, amene nthaŵi yaitali anali woyang’anira British Museum, anati: “Titha kunena motsimikizadi kuti mawu onse a m’Baibulo ngoona . . . Sitinganene zimenezi pa buku lina lililonse lamakedzana m’dzikoli.”10
[Mawu a M’munsi]
a Amasorete (kutanthauza “Odziŵa Mwambo”) anali okopa Malemba Achihebri ndipo anakhalako pakati pa zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chimodzi ndi lakhumi C.E. Malembo apamanja omwe iwo analemba amatchedwa malembo a Amasorete.2
b B.C.E. imatanthauza “Before the Common Era [Nyengo Yathu Isanafike].” C.E. imatanthauza “Common Era [Nyengo Yathu],” kaŵirikaŵiri imatchedwa A.D., yotanthauza Anno Domini, ndiko kuti “m’chaka cha Ambuye wathu.”
c Buku lakuti Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, lolembedwa ndi Emanuel Tov, likunena kuti: “Mwa kuupima ndi carbon 14, 1QIsaa [Mpukutu wa Yesaya wa ku Nyanja Yakufa] wapezeka kuti ngwapakati pa 202 ndi 107 BCE (kutsata kalembedwe kake: ngwa mu 125-100 BCE) . . . Njira yotsata kalembedwe kake imene yatchulidwayo, imene aiwongolera pazaka zaposachedwapa, imenenso imalola kupeza deti lenileni mwa kuyerekezera mpangidwe ndiponso kaimidwe ka zilembo zake ndi zinthu zina zonga makobiri ndi zozokota zokhala ndi madeti, yakhala yodalirika ndithu.”6
d Inde, wotembenuza aliyense payekha angakhale wosamala kapena wosasamala potsata malembo oyambirira achihebri ndi achigiriki.
[Chithunzi patsamba 8]
Baibulo linasungika chifukwa cha akatswiri okopa
[Zithunzi patsamba 9]
Mpukutu wa Yesaya wa ku Nyanja Yakufa (chitsanzo chake chasonyezedwa) ngwofanana kwambiri ndi malembo a Amasorete olembedwa zaka chikwi pambuyo pake