Kufunafuna Tsogolo la Munthu

KODI n’chifukwa chiyani anthu ambiri amakhulupirira chikonzero? Kwa zaka zonse zapitazi, munthu wakhala akufufuzafufuza zinsinsi za moyo ndi kuti adziŵe cholinga cha zinthu zonse zikuchitikazi. Wolemba mbiri wina, Helmer Ringgren, anafotokoza kuti: “Pamenepa m’pamene pachititsa kuti mawu akuti ‘mulungu,’ ‘chikonzero,’ ndi akuti ‘mwayi,’ atchulidwe, malingana ndi mmene zinthuzo zachitikira, kaya munthu wina ndiye akuchititsa zinthuzo, kaya si munthu weniweni akuzichititsa, kapena zikungochitika mwa zokha.” M’mbiri yonse anthu akhala ndi zikhulupiriro ndi nthano zambirimbiri, zokhudza kukhulupirira chikonzero.

Jean Bottéro, katswiri wa mbiri ya Asuri, anati: “M’mwambo wathu, zinthu zambiri timatengera kwa anthu a ku Mesopotamia.” Anawonjezeranso kuti ku Mesopotamia kapena ku Babulo wakale n’kumene timapezako “miyambo yakale kwambiri yosonyeza maganizo a anthu ndi mmene anali kuchitira akaona zinthu zozizwitsa, zomwe zili chipembedzo chakale kwambiri.” Kumenekonso n’kumene kunayambira chikhulupiriro chakuti chinthu chilichonse n’chokonzedweratu ndi Mulungu.

Anthu Akale Oyamba Kukhulupirira Chikonzero

M’mabwinja akale a ku Mesopotamia, kumene tsopano kukutchedwa ku Iraq, akatswiri a mbiri ya zinthu zakale zokumbidwa pansi anafukula zilembo zakale kwambiri. Miyala zikwizikwi yolembedwa ndi zilembo zotchedwa cuneiform imatipatsa chithunzi cha mmene unalili moyo wa anthu akale a ku Sumer ndi a ku Akkad, ndiponso anthu omwe anali kukhala mumzinda wotchuka wa Babulo. Malinga ndi mmene ananenera katswiri wina wa mbiri ya zinthu zakale zokumbidwa pansi, Samuel N. Kramer, anthu a ku Sumer “anali kuvutika maganizo chifukwa chamavuto a mtundu wa anthu, makamaka poona kuti choyambitsa mavutowo chinali chosadziŵika.” Ndiye pofufuza zifukwa zake, anayamba kukhulupirira kuti chilichonse n’chikonzero.

Katswiri wa mbiri ya zinthu zakale zokumbidwa pansi, Joan Oates, m’buku lake lakuti Babylon, anati, “aliyense ku Babulo anali ndi mulungu wakewake, wachikazi kapena wachimuna.” Anthu a ku Babulo anali kukhulupirira kuti milungu ndiyo inali “kukonzeratu tsogolo la anthu onse payekhapayekha, ndiponso la onse monga mtundu.” Malinga ndi kunena kwa Kramer, anthu a ku Sumeria anali kukhulupirira kuti “milungu yolamulira chilengedwe chonse inali kukonzeratu zoipa, bodza ndi chiwawa kuti zingokhala ngati moyo wa anthu.” Ambiri anali kukhulupirira kuti chilichonse n’chikonzero, ndipo anali kuchiona monga chikhulupiriro chabwino kwambiri.

Anthu a ku Babulo anali kuganiza kuti n’kotheka kudziŵa zolinga za milungu mwa njira yakuwombeza maula—“njira yolankhulana ndi milungu.” Kuwombeza maula inali njira yoyesera kuneneratu zam’tsogolo mwa kuona zochitika, ndi kutanthauzira zinthu. Anali kutanthauzira maloto, ndi kupenda matumbo. (Yerekezerani ndi Ezekieli 21:21; Danieli 2:1-4.) Zinthu zosayembekezeredwa kapena zachilendo zimene anali kuganiza kuti zinali kuvumbula za kutsogolo, anali kuzilemba pa magome adothi.

Édouard Dhorme, katswiri wa ku France wodziŵa chikhalidwe cha anthu akale, anati: “Tikamafufuza za mbiri ya Mesopotamia, timapeza kuti kunali alauli ndi owombeza maula.” Kuwombeza maula kunali moyo wa masiku onse. Ndithudi, Polofesa Bottéro anati, “chilichonse chinali kuonedwa monga chinthu chofunikira kupenda ndiponso monga yankho lawo powombeza maula. . . Thambo lonse anali kuliona ngati umboni wodalirika wodziŵira za m’tsogolo, ataliyang’anitsitsa thambolo.” Choncho, anthu a ku Mesopotamia anali okonda kwambiri kuyang’ana nyenyezi monga njira yolosera zakutsogolo.—Yerekezerani ndi Yesaya 47:13.

Ndiponso anthu a ku Babulo anali kuchita maere powombeza maula. Deborah Bennett, m’buku lake lakuti Randomness, anafotokoza kuti anthuwo anali kuchita maere “kuopera kuti ena asayendetse zinthu monga mwa kufuna kwawo, ndiye anali kuipatsa milunguyo njira yabwino yochitira chifuniro chawo.” Komabe, si kuti milunguyo ikagamula nkhani zinali kungothera pompo osabweza mtima. Munthu anali kutha kupempha chithandizo kwa milunguyo kuti apeŵe chikonzero china choipa.

Chikonzero ku Igupto Wakale

M’zaka za zana la 15 B.C.E., anthu a ku Babulo ndi a ku Igupto anali kugwirizana kwambiri. Ndiye pophunzira chikhalidwe cha anzawo, anali kuphunziranso miyambo yachipembedzo yogwirizana ndi kukhulupirira chikonzero. Kodi n’chifukwa chiyani Aigupto anayamba kukhulupirira chikonzero? Malinga ndi zimene ananena John R. Baines, polofesa wa dipatimenti yofufuza zinthu zakale za ku Igupto, pa Yunivesite ya Oxford, “zipembedzo zambiri za ku [Igupto] zinali kuyesayesa kumvetsetsa zochitika zosadziŵika, ndi kukonzekeratu kuchitapo kanthu pa zochitika zoipa.”

Mmodzi wa milungu yambiri ya ku Igupto, Isis anali kutchedwa “dona wa moyo, wokonzeratu tsogolo la munthu.” Aigupto analinso kuwombeza maula ndi kupenda nyenyezi. (Yerekezerani ndi Yesaya 19:3.) Wolemba mbiri wina anati: “Luso lawo lakufunsira kwa milungu linali lopanda malire.” Komabe, si Aigupto okha amene anatsanzira Ababulo kukhulupirira choikidwiratu.

Girisi ndi Roma

Jean Bottéro ananena kuti, “Pankhani zachipembedzo, Girisi wakale nayenso anakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi chikhulupiriro cha Ababulo. Polofesa Peter Green anafotokoza chifukwa chake ku Girisi kunali anthu ambiri okhulupirira chikonzero motere: “M’dziko losadziŵa chochita, mmene anthu ambiri anali kukana kuchita zinthu zosiyana ndi maganizo awo, nthaŵi zambiri anthu anali kudziona ngati zidole chabe zovinitsidwa ndi munthu wina, Chikonzero chinali chinthu chosamvetsetseka ndipo chosatheka kuchisintha, motero [chikonzero cha milungu] chinali kuonedwa ngati njira yokha yokonzera tsogolo la munthu aliyense. Munthu woti anali ndi luso kapena nzeru, anali kutha kudziŵiratu chimene chinali chitakonzedweratu. Mwina zingakhale zinthu zimene munthu sakanakondwa nazo atazimva, komabe, atazidziŵiratu nayenso anali kutha kukonzekeratu.”

Kuwonjezera pakulonjeza anthu za m’tsogolo, kukhulupirira chikonzero kunalinso kochititsa nthumanzi kwambiri. Maganizo akuti zinthu n’zoikidwiratu anali kukhazika pansi mitima ya anthu wamba, ndipo n’chifukwa chake, malinga ndi kunena kwa wolemba mbiri wina, F. H. Sandbach, “chikhulupiriro chakuti dziko limalamulidwa ndi Mulungu chinali chosangalatsa kwa kagulu ka anthu olamulira anzawo.”

Chifukwa chiyani? Polofesa Green anafotokoza kuti, chikhulupiriro chimenechi “chinali ngati chinthu chodzikhululukira nacho—pa makhalidwe, pa zaumulungu, pa kalankhulidwe—m’mitima ya anthu wamba ndi a ndale omwe: Chikhulupirirocho chinali njira yamphamvu kwambiri ndiponso yamachenjera kwambiri imene anthu a m’kagulu kolamulira ka Ahelene anali nayo, ndi cholinga chakuti akhalitse m’maudindo awo. Chinthu chilichonse chikachitika, chinali kuonedwa ngati kuti chinakonzedweratu; tsopano popeza kuti mulungu ndiye amapereka mphamvu yotsogoza zochita za anthu, chimene chinakonzedweratu ndiye kuti mosakayikira chinali chabwino koposa.” Kwenikweni, chikhulupirirocho chinali kupangitsa munthu “kudzilungamitsa yekha posasamala za anzake.”

Nkhani zolembedwa zachigiriki zilinso ndi umboni wakuti anthu ambiri anali kukhulupirira chikonzero. Mwa nkhani zakalezo panali zina zosimba nthano zokhala ndi wina wopambana, mphekesera zakale zotchuka, ndi zina zokhala ndi mapeto achisoni—zonsezo zosonyeza kuti mapeto a chilichonse anali okonzedweratu. Nthano zachigiriki zinali kusimba kuti tsogolo la munthu linali kuimiridwa ndi milungu itatu yachikazi yotchedwa Moirai. Clotho anali wopota chingwe cha moyo, Lachesis anali woyeza utali wa moyo, ndipo Atropos anali wodula moyo pamene nthaŵi yoikidwiratuyo inafika malire ake. Aroma nawonso anali ndi milungu itatu imene anali kuitcha kuti Parcae.

Aroma ndi Agiriki anali kufunitsitsa kudziŵiratu za m’tsogolo mwawo. Ndiyeno anatengera ziphunzitso za ku Babulo, za kupenda nyenyezi ndi kuwombeza maula, ndiye anazipititsa patsogolo. Zochitika zimene Aroma anali kugwiritsira ntchito kuneneratu za m’tsogolo anali kuzitcha kuti portenta, kapena zizindikiro. Zizindikiro zimenezi zinali kupereka mauthenga otchedwa kuti omina. Pomakwana zaka za zana lachitatu B.C.E., kupenda nyenyezi kunatchuka ku Girisi, ndipo mu 62 B.C.E., mapu oyamba olosera za kutsogolo anapangidwa. Agiriki anayamba kwambiri kukonda kupenda nyenyezi, moti malinga ndi mmene ananenera Polofesa Gilbert Murray, kupenda nyenyezi kunangowaloŵelera m’maganizo Ahelene monga mmene nthenda imayanjira anthu a kuzisumbu zakutali.”

Poyesa kudziŵa za kutsogolo, kaŵirikaŵiri Agiriki ndi Aroma anali kugwiritsira ntchito alauli. Agiriki ndi Aroma amenewo anali kukhulupirira kuti milungu inali kulankhula ndi anthu kudzera mwa alauliwo. (Yerekezerani ndi Machitidwe 16:16-19.) Kodi zikhulupiriro zimenezi zinali kuwakhudza bwanji anthu? Wanzeru wina, Bertrand Russell anati: “Anthu anayamba kukhala ndi mantha m’malo mokhala ndi chiyembekezo; cholinga chawo m’moyo chinali chakuthaŵa tsoka m’malo moti apeze zabwino zimene angathe.” Nkhani ngati zimenezo zinayamba kukhala zodzutsa mikangano m’Dziko Lachikristu.

Mikangano “Yachikristu” Pankhani ya Chikonzero

Akristu oyambirira anali kukhala ndi anthu amene anali kusonkhezeredwa kwambiri ndi Agiriki ndi Aroma pakukhulupirira mwayi ndiponso chikonzero. Mwachitsanzo, anthu otchedwa Abambo Atchalitchi, anali kukonda kugwiritsira ntchito kwambiri mabuku a anthu afilosofi achigiriki monga Aristotle ndi Plato. Funso limodzi limene anali kuyesa kulipezera yankho linali lakuti, Kodi Mulungu wodziŵa zonse, wamphamvuyonse, ‘wolalikira za chimaliziro kuyambira pachiyambi;’ angakhale bwanji Mulungu wachikondi? (Yesaya 46:10; 1 Yohane 4:8) Iwo anali kuganiza kuti, ngati Mulungu amadziŵiratu pachiyambi kuti mapeto adzakhala akutiakuti, ndiye kuti anadziŵadi kuti munthu adzachimwa ndipo anadziŵanso kuti zotsatira zake zidzakhala zoopsa.

Mmodzi mwa anthu omwe analemba mabuku ambiri kwambiri m’nyengo yachikristu, Origen, ananena kuti mfundo imodzi yofunika kuikumbukira n’njokhudza ufulu wakudzisankhira zochita. Analemba kuti: “M’Malemba muli mawu ambiri ndithu osonyeza bwino kwambiri kuti pali chinthu chotchedwa ufulu wakudzisankhira zochita.”

Origen anati, kunena kuti mphamvu yosadziŵika ndiyo imasonkhezera zochita zathu “si zoona ndiponso n’kusoŵa nzeru, koma kumeneko n’kunena kwa munthu wongofuna kukana mfundo yakuti pali ufulu wakudzisankhira zochita.” Origen ananena kuti ngakhale kuti Mulungu angadziŵiretu mwatsatanetsatane mmene zinthu za m’tsogolo zidzachitikire, sizikutanthauza kuti iye ndiye amapangitsa chinthu kuchitika kapena kuti chinthucho chiyenera chichitikebe basi. Komabe, si onse amene anavomerezana naye.

Bambo wina Watchalitchi, wambalume kwambiri, Augustine (354-430 B.C.E.), anaiumitsa mfundoyi mwa kunena kuti munthu alibe ufulu wakudzisankhira chochita pa zochitika zilizonse. Augustine anayamba kuphunzitsa m’Dziko Lachikristu kuti Mulungu ndiye amakonzeratu za m’tsogolo mwa munthu. Mabuku ake, makamaka otchedwa De libero arbitrio, ndiwo amene anali kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri m’Nyengo Zapakati. Potsirizira mkanganowo unakula pa nyengo ya kukonzanso zinthu, moti Dziko Lachikristu linagaŵanika pankhani ya kukhulupirira chikonzero.a

Chikhulupiriro Chofala

Komabe, si anthu a ku Madzulo okha amene amakhulupirira chikonzero. Asilamu nawonso amasonyeza kuti amakhulupirira chikonzero ponena kuti “mektoub”—zinalembedwa— akakumana ndi tsoka. N’zoona inde, kuti zipembedzo zambiri za Kummaŵa zimaphunzitsa kuti munthu angathe kusintha tsogolo lake, komabe, pa zimene amaphunzitsazo palinso mfundo zosonyeza kuti chilichonse n’chikonzero.

Mwachitsanzo, m’Chihindu ndi m’Chibuda, akamati Karma akutanthauza chikonzero chimene munthu sangapeŵe chifukwa cha zochita zake zakale. Ku China, zilembo zakale kwambiri zimene zinapezedwa, zinalembedwa pa zigoba za akamba, zomwe anali kugwiritsira ntchito kuwombedzera maula. Ndiponso anthu a m’mayiko a ku America anali kukhulupirira chikonzero. Mwachitsanzo, anthu a m’chigawo chapakati cha dziko la Mexico, otchedwa a Aztec, anapanga makalendala owombezera maula omwe anali kugwiritsira ntchito kusonyezera tsogolo la munthu. Ngakhale m’Afirika muno ambiri n’ngokhulupirira chikonzero.

Chokhacho chakuti anthu ambiri amakhulupirira chikonzero chimasonyeza kuti munthu amafunikiradi kukhulupirira kuti kuli munthu wina wamphamvu yaikulu. John B. Noss, m’buku lake lakuti Man’s Religions, anavomereza kuti: “Zipembedzo zonse zimanena mwa njira zosiyanasiyana kuti munthu sanaime payekha, ndipo sangadziimire payekha. Kwenikweni munthu amadalira mphamvu za Chilengedwe ndi za zolengedwa zina zanzeru kuposa anthu. Munthu amadziŵa bwino kapena mongoganizira, kuti sanadziimire payekha mosadalira anthu ena.”

Kuwonjezera pa kukhulupirira kwathu Mulungu, tifunikiranso kwambiri kudziŵa zimene zikuchitika. Komabe, kukhulupirira kuti kuli Mlengi wamphamvu yonse, n’kosiyana ndi kukhulupirira kuti iyeyo ndiye amakonzeratu tsogolo lathu mosasinthika. Kodi ifeyo timachitapo mbali yanji pakukonza tsogolo lathu? Nanga Mulungu naye amachitapo mbali yanji?

[Mawu a M’munsi]

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Kalendala ya Ababulo yopendera nyenyezi, 1000 B.C.E.

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Musée du Louvre, Paris

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Agiriki ndi Aroma anali kukhulupirira kuti tsogolo la munthu linali kukonzedweratu ndi milungu itatu yachikazi

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Musée du Louvre, Paris

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Isis wa ku Igupto, “wolamulira chikonzero ndi mwayi”

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Musée du Louvre, Paris

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Zilembo zakale kwambiri za ku China zolembedwa pa zigoba za akamba zinali zowombezera maula

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Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, Taipei

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Zimene zikuoneka pa bokosi la ku Peresiya limeneli ndi zizindikiro za zinthu zakumwamba

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Chithunzi chinajambulidwa mwa chilolezo cha a British Museum