Mtsogolo mwa Chipembedzo M’chiyang’aniro cha Nthaŵi Yake ya Kumbuyo

Gawo 15:1095-1453 C.E.—Kutembenukira ku Lupanga

“Anthu adzalimbana kaamba ka chipembedzo, kulemba kaamba ka icho, kumenyana kaamba ka icho, kufa kaamba ka icho; chirichonse koma kukhala ndi moyo kaamba ka icho.”—Charles Caleb Colton, mtsogoleri wachipembedzo wa Chingelezi wa zana la 19

CHIKRISTU m’zaka zake zoyambirira chinadalitsidwa ndi okhulupirira omwe anakhalira moyo chipembedzo chawo. M’kuchinjiriza chikhulupiriro chawo, iwo mwachangu anamenya ndi “lupanga la mzimu, ndilo mawu a Mulungu.” (Aefeso 6:17) Koma pambuyo pake, monga mmene zochitika pakati pa 1095 ndi 1453 zinachitira fanizo, Akristu a dzina, osati okhalira moyo ku Chikristu chenicheni, anatembenukira ku kugwiritsira ntchito mitundu ina ya malupanga.

Podzafika zana lachisanu ndi chimodzi, Ulamuliro wa Kumadzulo Wachiroma unali utagwa. Iwo unali utaloŵedwa m’malo ndi unzake wa Kum’mawa, Ulamuliro wa Byzantine wokhala ndi Constantinople monga likulu lake. Koma matchalitchi ake osiyana, akumavutika ndi kutekeseka kwakukulu kwa maunansi, mwamsanga anadziwona iwo eni owopsyezedwa ndi mdani wawo, ulamuliro wa Chisilamu wofalikira mofulumira.

Tchalitchi cha Kum’mawa chinazindikira chimenechi, mochedwa kwambiri, pamene m’zana lachisanu ndi chiŵiri Asilamu analanda Igupto ndi mbali zina za Ulamuliro wa Byzantine zokhala mu North Africa.

Mochepera pa zana limodzi pambuyo pake, tchalitchi cha Kumadzulo chinadabwitsidwa kuwona Chisilamu chikupita patsogolo kupyola Spain kuloŵa mu France, kufikira makilomita 160 mu Paris. Akatolika a Chispanish ambiri anatembenuzidwira ku Chisilamu, pamene kuli kwakuti ena anatengera makhalidwe a Chisilamu ndi kukupatira mwambo wa Chisilamu. “Popwetekedwa ndi kutayikiridwa kwake,” likutero bukhu lakuti Early Islam, “Tchalitchi chinagwira ntchito mosalekeza pakati pa ana ake a Chispanish kusonkhezera machenjera a kubwezera.”

Mazana angapo pambuyo pake, pamene Akatolika a Chispanish anabwezeretsa mbali yaikulu ya dziko lawo, iwo “anatembenukira pa anthu awo a Chisilamu ndi kuwazunza iwo mopanda chifundo. Anawakakamiza iwo kukana chikhulupiriro chawo, kuwathamangitsa iwo m’dziko, ndi kutenga miyezo yowopsya ya kuzula chizindikiro chirichonse cha mwambo wa Chisilamu cha Chispanish.”

Pa Nsonga za Malupanga

Mu 1095 Papa Urban II anaitanira Akatolika a ku Europe kunyamula lupanga lenileni. Chisilamu chinafunika kuthamangitsidwa kuchotsedwa m’malo oyera a Middle East ku amene Chikristu cha Dziko chinadzinenera kukhala ndi kuyenerera kotheratu.

Lingaliro la nkhondo “yachilungamo” silinali latsopano. Mwachitsanzo, kunalamulidwa m’kumenyana kolimbana ndi Asilamu mu Spain ndi Sicily. Ndipo mosachepera pa zaka khumi pempho la Urban lisanakhale, akutero Karlfried Froehlich wa Princeton Theological Seminary, Papa Gregory VII “analinganiza militia Christi (gulu la asilikali loitanidwa m’nthaŵi yangozi) kaamba ka kumenyana molimbana ndi adani onse a Mulungu ndi kuganizira kale za kutumiza gulu lankhondo Kum’mawa.”

Kachitidwe ka Urban kanali kumbali ina m’kuyankha ku pempho lochokera kwa Alexius wolamulira wa Byzantine kaamba ka thandizo. Koma popeza kuti unansi pakati pa mbali za Chikristu cha Dziko za Kum’mawa ndi Kumadzulo unawoneka kukhala ukuwongokera, papa ayeneranso kukhala anasonkhezeredwa ndi kuthekera koperekedwa ndi chimenechi kwa kugwirizanitsanso matchalitchi aŵiri ovutitsana apaubale. Pa mlingo uliwonse, iye anaitanitsa Bungwe la Clermont, limene linalengeza kuti awo ofuna kudziloŵetsa m’chochitika “choyera” chimenechi anafunikira kupatsidwa plenary indulgence (kuchotseredwa kwa chilango chirichonse kaamba ka chimo). Chivomerezo chinali chabwino mosayembekezereka. “Deus volt” (“Mulungu akuchifuna icho”) kunakhala kufuula kogwirizana Kum’mawa ndi Kumadzulo.

Mpambo wa maulendo a zankhondo unayamba womwe unakuta mbali yabwinopo ya mazana aŵiri. (Onani bokosi pa tsamba 18.) Poyambirira Asilamu anaganiza kuti oloŵererawo anali aku Byzantine. Koma pambuyo pozindikira chiyambi chawo chenicheni, anawatcha iwo Afrank, anthu a Chigerman kwa amene France pambuyo pake inatengako dziko lake. Kuti afikire chitokoso cha “akunja” a ku Europe amenewa, lingaliro linakula pakati pa Asilamu kaamba ka jihad (kumenyana kopatulika), nkhondo kapena kulimbana koyera.

Profesa wa Chibritish Desmond Stewart akuloza kuti: “Kwa wophunzira aliyense kapena wamalonda yemwe anafesa mbewu za kutsungula kwa Chisilamu mwa lamulo ndi chitsanzo, panali msilikali kaamba ka amene Chisilamu chinali chiitano ku nkhondo.” Podzafika theka lachiŵiri la zana la 12, mtsogoleri wa Chisilamu Nureddin anali otapanga gulu lankhondo lokhutiritsa mwa kugwirizanitsa Asilamu a kumpoto kwa Asuri ndi chakumtunda kwa Mesopotamiya. Chotero “monga mmene Akristu a Nyengo Zapakati ananyamulira zida kuti apititse patsogolo chipembedzo cha Kristu,” akupitiza tero Stewart, “Asilamu anatenga zida kuti apititse patsogolo chipembedzo cha Mneneri.”

Ndithudi, kupititsa patsogolo zolinga za chipembedzo sikunali nthaŵi zonse mphamvu yosonkhezera. Bukhu lakuti The Birth of Europe likusonyeza kuti kwa anthu a ku Europe ambiri, Nkhondo Zachipembedzo “zinapereka mwaŵi wosatsutsika wa kudzipezera kutchuka, kapena kusonkhanitsa zofunkha, kapena kupanga minda yatsopano, kapena kulamulira maiko onse—kapena kungothaŵa kusungulumwa m’zochitika zaulemerero.” Amalonda a ku Italy nawonso anawona mwaŵi wa kukhazikitsa malo a malonda m’maiko a Kum’mawa a Mediterranean. Koma mosasamala kanthu za chisonkhezero, onse mwachiwonekere anali okonzekera kufa kaamba ka chipembedzo chawo—kaya kukhale m’nkhondo “yachilungamo” ya Chikristu cha Dziko kapena m’kumenyana kopatulika kwa Chisilamu.

Lupanga Libweretsa Zotulukapo Zosayembekezereka

“Ngakhale kuti Nkhondo Zachipembedzo zinalunjikitsidwa motsutsana ndi Asilamu Kum’mawa,” ikutero The Encyclopedia of Religion, “changu cha Omenya Nkhondo Zachipembedzo chinachitidwa pa Ayuda omwe anakhala m’maiko amene Omenya Nkhondo Zachipembedzo amenewo analembedwa ntchito, uko ndiko kuti, mu Europe. Lingaliro lofala pakati pa Omenya Nkhondo Zachipembedzo linali kubwezera kaamba ka imfa ya Yesu, ndipo Ayuda anakhala minkhole yoyambirira. Chizunzo cha Ayuda chinachitika mu Rouen mu 1096, chotsatiridwa mofulumira ndi kusakaza kwakupha mu Worms, Mainz, ndi Cologne.” Ichi chinali kalambulabwalo wa mzimu wotsutsana ndi Chisemi wa masiku a Chipululutso cha Nazi Germany.

Nkhondo Zachipembedzo zinawonjezeranso udani wa Kum’mawa ndi Kumadzulo womwe unkakula chiyambire 1054, pamene Kholo Michael Cerularius wa Kum’mawa ndi Cardinal Humbert wa Kumadzulo m’chenicheni analekanitsana wina ndi mnzake. Pamene Omenya Nkhondo Zachipembedzo anasintha atsogoleri a chipembedzo a Chigriki ndi kuloŵetsamo abishopu a Chilatin m’mizinda imene analanda, kupatukana kwa Kum’mawa ndi Kumadzulo kunatsika kudzakhudza anthu wamba.

Kusweka pakati pa matchalitchi aŵiri amenewa kunakhala kotheratu mkati mwa Nkhondo Yachipembedzo Yachinayi pamene, mogwirizana ndi yemwe kale anali Canon wa Anglican wa Canterbury Herbert Waddams, Papa Innocent III anachita “umuthira kuŵiri.” Ku mbali ina, papayo anali wokwiyitsidwa ponena za kuchotsedwa kwa Constantinople. (Onani bokosi pa tsamba 18.) Iye analemba kuti: “Ndimotani mmene Tchalitchi cha Agriki chingayembekezeredwe kubwerera ku kudzipereka ku Ulamuliro wa Utumwi pamene icho chakhala chikuwona anthu a Chilatin akukhazikitsa chitsanzo cha kuipa ndi kuchita ntchito za mdyerekezi kotero kuti kalekale, ndipo ndi chifukwa chabwino, Agriki amawada iwo moipitsitsa kuposa agalu.” Ku mbali ina, iye mofunitsitsa anatenga mwaŵi wa mkhalidwewo mwa kukhazikitsa ufumu wa Chilatin kumeneko pansi pa kholo la kumadzulo.

Pambuyo pa mazana aŵiri a chifupifupi kumenyana kopitirizabe, Ulamuliro wa Byzantine unafooketsedwa kotero kuti unali wosakhoza kulimbana ndi kuwukira kwa Ottoman Turks, amene, pa May 29, 1453, pomalizira analanda Constantinople. Ulamulirowo unali utadulidwa osati kokha ndi lupanga la Chisilamu komanso ndi lupanga lomenyedwa ndi tchalitchi chapachibale chaulamulirowo mu Roma namonso. Chikristu cha Dziko chogawika chinapatsa Chisilamu maziko oyenerera a kuloŵera mu Europe.

Malupanga a Ndale Zadziko ndi Chizunzo

Nkhondo Zachipembedzo zinalimbitsa malo a upapa a utsogoleri wa chipembedzo ndi ndale zadziko. Izo “zinapatsa apapa dzanja lolamulira m’kuyanjana kwa lamulo kwa ku Europe,” akulemba tero katswiri wa mbiri yakale John H. Mundy. Pasanapite nthaŵi yaitali “tchalitchicho chinali boma lalikulu koposa la Europe . . . , [lokhoza] kupereka mphamvu zowonjezereka za ndale zadziko kuposa boma lina lirilonse la Kumadzulo.”

Kukwera kumeneku m’mphamvu kunakhala kothekera pamene Ulamuliro wa Roma wa Kumadzulo unagwa. Tchalitchi chinasiidwa kukhala mphamvu yogwirizanitsa yokulira Kumadzulo ndipo chotero chinayamba kuchita mbali ya ndale zadziko yokangalika kwambiri m’chitaganya kuposa mmene chinachitira tchalitchi cha Kum’mawa, chimene pa nthaŵi imeneyo chinali chidakali pansi pa wolamulira wamphamvu wakunja, wolamulira wa Byzantine. Kutukulidwa kwa ndale zadziko kumeneku kosungiriridwa ndi tchalitchi cha Kumadzulo kunapereka kudalirika ku kudzinenera kwake kwa ulamuliro wa upapa, lingaliro limene tchalitchi cha Kum’mawa chinakana. Pamene kuli kwakuti chinavomereza kuti papa anali woyenerera ulemu, tchalitchi cha Kum’mawa sichinavomereze kuti iye anali ndi mphamvu zomalizira pa chiphunzitso kapena zitsogozo.

Chitasonkhezeredwa ndi mphamvu ya ndale zadziko ndi chikhutiritso chosokeretsedwa cha chipembedzo, Tchalitchi cha Roma Katolika chinafikira lupanga kuti chichotsepo chitsutso. Kusaka otsutsa kunakhala ntchito yake. Aprofesa a mbiri yakale Miroslav Hroch ndi Anna Skýbová a pa Yunivesiti ya Karls mu Prague, Czechoslovakia, akulongosola mmene Kufufuzafufuza, gulu lapadera lolinganizidwa kulanga otsutsa, linagwirira ntchito: “Mosiyana ndi kachitidwe ka chisawawa, maina a opereka chidziŵitso . . . sanafunikire kuululidwa.” Papa Innocent IV anapereka kalata ya lamulo yotchedwa “Ad extirpanda” mu 1252, imene inalola kuzunza. “Atatenthedwa pa mtengo, kachitidwe ka nthaŵi zonse kogwiritsiridwa ntchito kupha otsutsa podzafika zana la 13, . . . kanakhala ndi chizindikiro chake, kutanthauza kuti mwa kupereka mtundu umenewu wa chilango, tchalitchi sichinakhale ndi liwongo la kukhetsa mwazi.”

Ofufuzafufuzawo analanga zikwi makumi angapo za anthu. Zikwi zina anatenthedwa pa mtengo, chikumatsogoza katswiri wa mbiri yakale Will Durant kuchitira ndemanga kuti: “Kupanga chilolezo chirichonse chofunikira kwa katswiri wa mbiri yakale ndi kololedwa kwa Mkristu, tifunika kuzindikiritsa Kufufuzafufuzako kukhala . . . pakati pa mbali zoipitsitsa m’cholembera cha mtundu wa munthu, kuvumbula nkhalwe yosadziŵika ku chirombo chirichonse.”

Zochitika za Kufufuzafufuzako zimakumbutsa mawu a Blaise Pascal, wanthanthi ndi wasayansi wa Chifrench wa zana la 17, yemwe analemba kuti: “Anthu samachita konse choipa kotheratu chotero ndipo mwachisangalalo monga mmene amachitira icho kuchokera ku chisonkhezero cha chipembedzo.” Kunena zowonadi, kuzunguza lupanga la chizunzo molimbana ndi anthu olondola chipembedzo chosiyana kwakhala chozindikiritsa chipembedzo chonyenga chiyambire pamene Kaini anapha Abele.—Genesis 4:8.

Kusakazidwa ndi Lupanga la Kusagwirizana

Kusamvana kwa utundu ndi zochitachita za ndale zadziko kunatsogolera mu 1309 ku kusamutsidwa kwa malo okhala a apapa kuchoka ku Roma kupita ku Avignon. Ngakhale kuti anabwezeretsedwa ku Roma mu 1377, kukangana kowonjezereka kunayambitsidwa mwamsanga pambuyo pake ndi kusankhidwa kwa papa watsopano, Urban VI. Koma gulu limodzimodzilo la macardinal lomwe linamsankha iye linasankhanso papa wotsutsana naye, Clement VII, yemwe anakhazikika mu Avignon. Zinthu zinasokonezeka mowonjezerekapo kuchiyambi kwa zana la 15, pamene kwa nthaŵi yochepera apapa atatu anali kulamulira chapamodzi!

Mkhalidwe umenewu, wodziŵika monga Kugawanika kwa Kumadzulo, kapena Kokulira, unathetsedwa ndi Bungwe la Constance. Ilo linayambitsa prinsipulo la conciliarism, nthanthi yakuti ulamuliro wa womalizira wa tchalitchi uli pansi pa mabungwe a nduna za tchalitchi ndipo osati mu mphamvu ya upapa. Chotero, mu 1417 bungwelo linakhala lokhoza kusankha Martin V kukhala papa watsopano. Ngakhale kuti anali atagwirizananso, tchalitchicho chinafooketsedwa moipa. Mosasamala kanthu ndi zipsyerazo, ngakhale kuli tero, mphamvu ya upapa inakana kuzindikira kufunika kulikonse kwa kusintha. Mogwirizana ndi John L. Boojamra, wa Saint Vladimir’s Orthodox Theological Seminary, kulephera kumeneku “kunayala maziko kaamba ka Kukonzanso kwa zana la khumi mphambu zisanu ndi limodzi.”

Kodi Iwo Anali Kukhalira Moyo Chipembedzo Chawo?

Muyambitsi wa Chikristu analangiza atsatiri ake kupanga ophunzira koma sanawauze iwo kugwiritsira ntchito mphamvu yakuthupi m’kuchita tero. M’chenicheni, iye anachenjeza mwachindunji kuti “onse akugwira lupanga adzawonongeka ndi lupanga.” Mofananamo, iye sanalangize atsatiri ake kuvulaza mwakuthupi aliyense wokhala ndi maganizo osayanja. Prinsipulo Lachikristu loyenera kusungidwa linali lakuti: “Ndipo kapolo wa Ambuye sayenera kuchita ndewu, komatu akhale woyenera, waulere pa onse, wodziŵa kuphunzitsa, woleza, wolangiza iwo akutsutsana mofatsa; ngati kapena Mulungu awapatse iwo chitembenuziro, kukazindikira chowonadi.”—Mateyu 26:52; 2 Timoteo 2:24, 25.

Mwa kutembenukira ku lupanga lenileni la nkhondo, limodzinso ndi malupanga ophiphiritsira a ndale zadziko ndi chizunzo, Chikristu cha Dziko mowonekera sichinali kutsatira chitsogozo cha Amene chinadzinenera kukhala Muyambitsi wake. Chosweka kale ndi kusagwirizana, icho chinawopsyezedwa ndi kugwa kotheratu. Chikatolika cha Chiroma chinali “Chipembedzo Chofunikiradi Kupanga Kukonzanso.” Koma kodi kukonzansoko kukabwera? Ngati ndi tero, liti? Kuchokera kwa yani? Kope lathu la September 8 lidzatiwuza zowonjezereka.

[Bokosi/Chithunzi patsamba 18]

Nkhondo Yabwino Yachikristu?

Kodi Nkhondo Zachipembedzo zinali nkhondo yabwino imene Akristu analangizidwa kuimenya?—2 Akorinto 10:3, 4; 1 Timoteo 1:18.

Nkhondo Yachipembedzo Yoyamba (1096-99) inatulukapo m’kulandidwanso kwa Yerusalemu ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa maboma anayi a Chilatin Kum’mawa: Ufumu wa Yerusalemu, Boma la Edessa, Likulu la Antioch, ndi Boma la Tripoli. Wokhala ndi ulamuliro wogwidwa mawu ndi katswiri wa mbiri yakale H. G. Wells akunena za kulandidwa kwa Yerusalemu kuti: “Kuphako kunali koipitsitsa; mwazi wa ogonjetsedwa unayenda pansi m’makwalala, kufikira anthu anakhavula m’mwazi pamene anali kuyenda. Pa kufika kwa usiku, ‘kulira kaamba ka chisangalalo chopambana,’ omenya nkhondo yachipembedzo anabwera ku Sepulchre kuchokera koponda kwawo, ndi kuika pamodzi manja awo odetsedwa ndi mwazi m’pemphero.”

Nkhondo Yachipembedzo Yachiŵiri (1147-49) inayambidwa chifukwa cha kutayikiridwa kwa Boma la Edessa kwa Asilamu a ku Asuri mu 1144; iyo inatha pamene Asilamu mwachipambano anabweza “otsutsa chipembedzo” a Chikristu cha Dziko.

Nkhondo Yachipembedzo Yachitatu (1189-92), yochitidwa pambuyo pakuti Asilamu anatenganso Yerusalemu, nakhala ndi mmodzi monga wolamulira wake Richard I, “wa Mtima wa mkango,” wa ku England. Mwamsanga “inagawanika” ikutero The Encyclopedia of Religion, “kupyolera m’kusamvana, kukangana, ndi kusoŵeka kwa chigwirizano.”

Nkhondo Yachipembedzo Yachinayi (1202-4) inapatutsidwa kaamba ka kusoŵeka kwa ndalama kuchokera ku Igupto kupita ku Constantinople; thandizo la zakuthupi linalonjezedwa m’kubwezera kaamba ka kuthandiza kuika Alexius pa ufumu, wa ku Byzantine wotengedwa ukapolo wonamizira kukhala pa ulamuliro. “Kufunkha [kotulukapo] kwa Constantinople kochitidwa ndi Omenya Nkhondo Yachipembedzo kuli chinachake chimene anthu a Chiorthodox cha Kum’mawa sanaiwale konse kapena kukhululukira,” ikutero The Encyclopedia of Religion, ikumawonjezera kuti: “Ngati deti limodzi lirilonse lingasonyezedwe kaamba ka kukhazikitsidwa kolimba kwa kupatukako, koyenerera koposa—pa mlingo uliwonse m’kawonedwe ka luso la maganizo—liri chaka cha 1204.”

Nkhondo Yachipembedzo ya Ana (1212) inabweretsa imfa ku zikwi zingapo za ana a Chigerman ndi a Chifrench asanafike konse kumene anali kupita.

Nkhondo Yachipembedzo Yachisanu (1217-21), yomalizira pansi pa ulamuliro wa upapa, inalephera chifukwa cha utsogoleri wokhala ndi zophophonya ndi kuloŵerera kwa atsogoleri a chipembedzo.

Nkhondo Yachipembedzo Yachisanu ndi Chimodzi (1228-29) inatsogozedwa ndi Wolamulira Frederick II wa ku Hohenstaufen, amene Papa Gregory IX anali atamulekanitsa.

Nkhondo Zachipembedzo za Chisanu ndi Chiŵiri ndi Chisanu ndi Chitatu (1248-54 ndi 1270-72) zinatsogozedwa ndi Louis IX wa ku France koma zinalephera pambuyo pa imfa yake mu North Africa.

[Chithunzi patsamba 17]

Manda a Chiyuda mu Worms, Germany—chokumbutsa cha Nkhondo Yachipembedzo Yoyamba